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DEATH & DYING.
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Existential & humanistic approaches. Examines history of ideas & treatment of dying (by Christians, Hindus, Buddhists), world literature. Stages of dying, fallacies, fears.... More...
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Paper Abstract:
Existential & humanistic approaches. Examines history of ideas & treatment of dying (by Christians, Hindus, Buddhists), world literature. Stages of dying, fallacies, fears.
Paper Introduction:
The purpose of this research is to examine the existential and humanistic approach to death and dying. It will briefly discuss attitudes toward death throughout the history of man's various civilizations and religions. Primarily, the paper will deal with the ideas concerning death which have been held by existentialists who have been involved in the treatment of the dying and others who have been involved in death solely as members of mankind - and therefore as ones who must face it at sometime themselves.
The idea of immortality has been common to most of man's answers regarding the consequences to the dead person of having died. The ancient Mesopotamians believed in a dismal underworld full of misery. The ancient Egyptians, on the other hand, believed that death could contain all the comforts and amusements
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The Gita has a slightly differentoutlook on the soul's doings after leaving the body. Theymust stand by, as that is what he really needs. Perhaps one would wish to concur withSartre in his assertion that it is the self who, as he has given meaning tohis existence, gives meaning to his death. Herman Frefel, ed. Indeed, it is quite a goodidea to double-check on so grave a matter; the double-checking can,however, be carried to the extreme. Even the dying must spend some timeliving. Societyhas, wrongly, led its members to believe that no one wants to die and thatto tell him that he is close to death is unkind. In Hinduism there are several variants of the afterlife and thesoul's role in it (Long, 1975). Thepatient's anger has been ineffectual and instead of it, he now tries a newtactic, "being good." He becomes cooperative and helpful to the utmost;perhaps, he seems to feel, if I am good, I'll be forgiven and be granted areprieve. It thenenters upon a rebirth cycle, which continues until the self realizes itsoneness with the Universal Self. The day which she had arranged was filledwith religious festivity. The Meaning of Death. Studies have shown that incomplete grieving caneffect the relationship of the bereaved child with others for the remainderof his life. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, pp. Whether it has been a cause or simply the knowledge that one haslived a full life, there is ample evidence from man's history that he canface his own death with readiness. Hope would imply that there is always some potential to change theevents of the future. Atthis time, he will be tired and weak; he will be void of feelings. Martin Heidegger, a controversial existentialistphilosopher, had much to say in the concern of death. (1974). Existentialism and death. Talking about death is difficult due to the tabooswhich have been placed on the subject, as well as to personal anxiety. The second stage which she identified is that of anger. Just as one cannot look into the sun all the time,one cannot at all times face death. His frustrated rage lashesout toward everyone. Confrontation with death,"Being-toward-Death," says Heidegger, "is essentially anxiety" (Angst). Basically, each birth is seen as a rebirth - whichmay have occurred directly following death or a set number of daysthereafter, depending on one's particular beliefs. In it, the novelistdescribes the death of a "successful" judge who, once faced with death,realizes that his life has been nothing. No one can have the experience ofdeath unless it is his own. This is natural, and, Kubler-Rosshas pointed out that denial crops up from time to time throughout the restof the dying process. It may lead to Nirvana or to rebirth. These tombs often had servants' quarters near their entrances. Should he cease, it must. The needs of the dying person for help with thepsychological battle which is being waged within him are not met, by andlarge, by the medical profession. But these things will not alleviate preparatory depression. He has believed in after lives of varying pleasantness ordiscomfort. Thepatient is about to suffer the greatest loss of his life. There is not astressed doctrine of rebirth. The reader experiences the anger,despair and loneliness of dying along with Illych. New York: Basic Books, Inc.Grimsley, Ronald. Attachment and loss. He is really angry withhis circumstances, not with the people he confronts. The greatest benefit psychologically of thevarious religious rituals surrounding death has been the closeness offamily and friends which they encourage both before death around the dyingperson and after death when the bereaved need support for their grief. All patients use atleast partial denial. Probably he will cry some and not talk verymuch. To that end, they filled thetombs of their pharaohs with paintings and sculptures of servants, animals,festivities and sporting events; when the wandering ka returned to the bodyof the dead man, he would then have all the things around him for hispleasure. (1969). However, one must realize thatconfronted with a certain set of circumstances, the most natural thing fora body to do, indeed the most appropriate thing for it to do, is to die.Simply stated, just as a cough is the natural and appropriate reactionunder a certain set of circumstances, death is the natural and appropriatereaction under another. What he needsduring this period is patient company, someone, perhaps, to hold his handand sit quietly with him. Those needs are not only a struggle forhis life and more medication to overcome his pain. That evening she died. "The critical issue," says Weisman, "is between survival andsignificant survival." And this has been the pivotal point for all theages. How could the world continue, one wonders,without me? 3 4-323.Bowlby, John. One author (Kaufman, 1959) points out thatHolderlin has said this feeling very clearly in the last line of one of hislast poems: "Once I lived like the gods, and more is not needed." SUMMARY Throughout history, man has found various ways of easing the thoughtof death. It may make him unable to complete any projects he mightbegin; it may even result in his suicide as in the case of the poet SylviaPlath (Koch, 1977). He is leavinghis familiar body and life as well as everyone and everything he loves to -what? When children meet death. For Illych,as for too many persons faced with death, the separation begins long beforenatural circumstances ring it to pass. In it thepatient bursts out with a "why me?" attitude. At thispoint he is ready and willing to die. (1969). The purpose of this research is to examine the existential andhumanistic approach to death and dying. Although we have made great progress in the struggleto overcome disease in our modern medical technology, it seems, readingKubler-Ross's On Death and Dying (1969), that modern man has forgotten toattend to the needs of the dying. In 1915 he wrote (quoted by Kaufman): "In hisunconscious, every one of us is convinced of his immortality." One of themethods which he cited as impersonalization of death is an emphasis on thecause of death. Kubler-Ross, in her study, talked with the dying patients ofhospitals over much of the world to learn their needs and to try to help. Over the past decade or so, the humanistic approach toward death hasbeen particularly studied by Elisabeth Kubler-Ross. It is as personal and as meaningful ashis existence. At any rate, the humanself is known to be a shifting consciousness, composed of the passingimpressions of moments. But there is no reprieve available, as h will then realize. New York: McMillan Publishing Co., Inc.May, Rollo, Ernest Angel and Henri F. One of the great virtues of the traditional religious approaches todeath has been that they tend to bring the living together around thedying, and to help the survivors to overcome the pain of separation throughdeath. Death is therefore the door toeternity, the way in which one is "born unto eternal life." Death isfrightening in the Christian concept, as it means that the person will bejudged. One of theseis that no one wants to die unless he is suicidal or psychotic. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, Inc.Kubler-Ross, Elisabeth. . Other existentialists have also discussed death in its relationshipto existence. It hasbeen noted above that this is not the case. Some societies have glorified death for causessuch as faith or nationalism. Thekindest thing that one can do is to be willing to listen to the patientwhen he needs to talk. Cardiff:University of Wales Press.Kaufman, Walter. New York: Behavioral Publications, Inc.----------------------- 13 -ceasing to exist. Finally, the patient reaches the last stage, that of acceptance. (1977, August). Humanistic existence and con- contemporary psychology. (196 ). (1972). One aged Indian woman, Old Sarah, for instance, called upon apreacher two weeks in advance of her death to ask him to come on a specificdate with members of her family. She herself had accepted it. Primarily, the paper will deal with the ideas concerning deathwhich have been held by existentialists who have been involved in thetreatment of the dying and others who have been involved in death solely asmembers of mankind - and therefore as ones who must face it at sometimethemselves. . He easily pointedout that loss through death is a loss for the survivors (Kaufman, 1959).The personal nature of death is readily denied. Kubler-Ross cites the example of onepatient who had reached acceptance whose husband was insistent on anotheroperation, another attempt to save her. It will briefly discuss attitudestoward death throughout the history of man's various civilizations andreligions. After battling with antagonistic doctors andnurses, she found that the terminal patients themselves were relieved andpleased for someone to allow them to talk about it. 39-63.Kemmel, Douglas C. The ancientMesopotamians believed in a dismal underworld full of misery. Taboos and anxiety prevent the familyand friends of an individual from honestly dealing with the facts of death. He had never before listened to what she was telling him. The former can be lightenedsomewhat by the cheerful presence of friends and family. Freud also recognized this tendency of man to deny the fact ofpersonal death. Belief in reincarnation has helped him to leave this life byassuring him of another. He is confronting thegreatest loss, the greatest mystery and fear, of his life. It may happen that the dying person can face this at one moment ina completely realistic way; the next moment he may be contradicting himselfand reaching for some new claim to life. She became increasingly restlessand hysterical as the day of the surgery neared; on that day, she becamepsychotic on the operating table before the surgery began and in that wayprevented it. Jean-Paul Sartre points out that death is as absurd as life,as meaningless in itself. Hesees death (Grimsley, 196 ) as the "impossible possibility" of the Dasein.It is the sole ultimate possibility of the individual. He is about to do one of the most important thingshe has ever done in his life. In itself death is asingle fact amongst many others. This is the stage of "it can't happento me." During it the patient finds himself confronted with thecontradiction to his belief in his own immortality. She has been quitesuccessful in winning the attention of the everyday person over to theplight of the dying. But, just as the self gives meaning to its life,so it gives meaning to its death (Grimsley, 196 ). Fear of death is not basic toman; it does not increase as one nears death. Here the danger is that these victims of hisfeelings may take him seriously and personally. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.Koch, Joanne. The Upanishads teach that the self departsthrough some aperture of the body, leaving behind lifeless matter. Instead, "death is conquered and mortalityis achieved by identifying oneself with the personal, all-knowing, all-loving God, Vishnu (in the form of Krishna) in the spirit of faith and instrict obedience to his will." Buddhism also contains several doctrines concerning the condition ofthe self after death. On dying and denying: A psychiatric study of terminality. The Etruscan forerunners of the Romans also sculpted tools andfoodstuffs into the stone of their burial mounds - which were carved out toresemble houses. The first is the primary paradox: although one knows that death is universal and inevitable, one cannotconceive of one's own death. "Being-toward-death" is notnecessarily anxiety. Most of the literature about death, at least among psychologists, hascentered on the effects of the death, of separation which results fromdeath of a family member or loved one. The first stage which she found was that of denial and isolation.This stage is exemplified by the person, on hearing that he has a terminalillness, who goes then from doctor to doctor, from lab test to lab testsearching for the opposite opinion, for the news that the x-rays werewrong, for anything which will grant reprieve. Hebecomes depressed. Usually the patient knows he isdying, but senses the delicacy of the topic and will not bring it up. However, the emphasis of modern medicine has become the preservationof life to the extreme that death represents a medical failure, not anatural event. Kaufman feels that Heidegger has been much influenced in his thoughtsby Tolstoy's novel, The Death of Ivan Illych. Recent work, particularly that of Elisabeth Kubler-Ross, has shown thatthe dying patient needs to be allowed to die with dignity and in the honestcompany of those he loves. The ancientEgyptians, on the other hand, believed that death could contain all thecomforts and amusements of the earthly life. It "confronts death directlyand specifically views the period of terminal illness . It is her major point throughout Kubler-Ross' writing that there ismore harm done by avoiding the topic of death with the patient than bybeing open - albeit gentle - with him. One author (Weisman, 1972) has cited the case of a woman whonoticed that her doctor was very uneasy tending her and that he was notable to accept her pain and the fact that she was dying. From her experiences, she came to distinguish five distinct stages ofpreparation for death. Because man has been taught that he is sinful, he will mostprobably have to suffer for some indefinite length of time directlyfollowing his death. It has been necessary forthe philosophers and psychologists who have dealt with being, withexistence, to ultimately come to the matter of dying, of - perhaps? Shetried to kill herself at the age of twenty and again, this timesuccessfully, at the age of thirty. However, at the same time as one hopes, one canaccept. The next stage is a typically childlike one: bargaining. Christian concepts of death, too, have centered around the existenceof an afterlife. The idea of immortality has been common to most of man's answersregarding the consequences to the dead person of having died. REFERENCESBarnes, Hazel E. He went to speak to his wife and finally began to understandthat all his attempts had been made out of a selfish desire to keep herwith him. The Literature of Possibility. After all, each individual "creates" the world from hisexperiences and perceptions. The doctors are incompetent; the nurses neglect him;his family is indifferent. .as a time when loved ones should surround, comfort, and encourage thepatient." In Alaska, among the Indians, the aged person is active until death,taking the major role in the events which precede his death (Trelease,1975). The soul of the dead person may find bliss or punishmentin the traditional Christian afterlife. For instance, themother who is terminally ill will be relieved to hear that her youngchildren are safely and contentedly playing at the neighbor's home whiletheir father is at work and that they will be safe and cared for after herdeath. Existence: A new dimension in psychiatry and psychology. However, it would be wrong for any visitor to attempt to cheer himup, as he needs most to complete his grief. Kubler-Ross had to take the husband aside and explain to himthat his wife was ready to die and that she needed to be allowed to do soin dignity. Research has tended to show that when confronted with a death forwhich he has had some time to prepare - hence, not a sudden violent one - aperson may welcome it. A person says that "onedies," he admits that death is a fact of nature for all animals, includingman; however, although "one dies," "I" do not. Karl Jaspers (Grimsley, 196 ) pointed out thatdeath does not destroy the essential existence of one's friend; it destroysonly the essential existence of oneself. He has only one servant who is willing to faceit squarely with him, and for that Illych is happy in his company. Death is inevitable for man. The "imagined 'self' who thinks in terms of 'I'and 'mine' does not survive from one moment to the next and hence, does nottransmigrate." Death to the Buddhist is inevitable and to be facedpeacefully. . The existential philosophers have realized that. Plath's own poetry and her novel, The Bell Jar, attestthe awful dominant effects of her father's death on her later years. Those persons have toconsider the tremendous psychological pressure the patient is under. Forthis reason, there is often a great deal of anxiety by family members overthe telling of the terminally-ill patient of his impending death, or agreat deal of worry on the patient's part over telling his family. Death is not natural: it is forced on the person by someaccident of health or circumstance. However, it is really the effect of dying on the individual who isfaced with that task which is here at question. At that time it enters a state ofphysical and spiritual liberation. New York: McGraw, pp. Freud, too, has dealt largely with theeffect of separation on the bereaved in his discussions of death. AlthoughHeidegger, for example, believed that anxiety is essential to "being-toward-death," he also recognized that one covers up this fear by impersonalizingdeath. (1959). He foundthat incomplete grief often manifested itself in anger at the dead, theself, God, or some other agent who could be blamed for the death far intoadulthood in the cases of those adults whose parents had died during theirchildhood (Bowlby, 1969). Ellenberger, eds. Societies have glorified death in man's history.Soldiers have gone to war looking for heroes' deaths; Martyrs have giventhemselves for causes; the aged have relaxed into death as a true restingplace. Adulthood and aging. On death and dying. There are certain common fallacies pertaining to death. Existentialist thought. Research has since shown this fear to be unnecessary. Death: The final step of Growth. II. His friends and family force it onhim; he lies dying while being forced to listen to their gaiety androwdiness in another room. Death is essentially individual. It is likeexistence in that existence and death share the characteristics of being"mine." However, in order to protect himself from fear, the individualimpersonalizes death. Kubler-Ross cites two forms of depression common todying patients: reactive and preparatory. Secondly, the fearof death which is felt in its contemplation is seldom there when one mustface literal death. Those around him do notwant to discuss the imminence of his death; they do not want to believe init or to suffer with him. and dying . The necessity of completion of thegrieving cycle is emphasized. (1975). Psychology Today, 11, 3, 64-66 and ff.Kubler-Ross, Elisabeth, ed. It isthe time during which he withdraws from the life he has known. (1959). Thereis a distinct stage of separation and grief for the dying man. The fifty assumptioncommon to discussions of death is related to hope and the acceptance ofdeath. It is far more desirable to diehaving lived fully and fruitfully (by one's own definition) than it is tolive long and impotently. They laid their dead on beds. New York: Simon and Schuster.Weisman, Avery D. Psychiatrists have noted four types of assumptions basic todiscussions about death (Weisman, 1972). (1958). She herself recognized these asanniversary reactions. For instance, the Jewish tradition (Heller, 1975) brings familiesand friends together with the dying person. Inthis way the families and their servants could continue after death with asimilar life to the one which they had enjoyed on the earth. She thenminimized her pain in his presence and was cheerful whenever he visited,thus, helping him to deny her situation. In the tombs of the richerpeople, the beds were located in a room behind the apparent main "living"area.
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