For more information
Call 1-800-351-0222
Call 1-800-351-0222
AFRICAN FEMALE WRITERS.
Term Paper ID:30776
Essay Subject:
Emergence of oppressed African women.... More...
30 Pages / 6750 Words
16 sources, 98 Citations,
MLA Format
$100.00
More Papers on This Topic
Paper Abstract:
Emergence of oppressed African women. How their texts reveal rebellion against the cultural expectations of their society. Examines eight books. Subject matter includes cultural differences that separate Western women from African women. African womanism vs. Western feminism. IColonial oppression. Husband/wife relationships. Role of the African matriarch. Emergence of female identity.
Paper Introduction:
Finding the Oppressed Voice in the African Female Text
Amidst the sound and the fury of their lives that are controlled by colonialists and the men, African women’s voices have been stifled. However, the voices of the African women rebelling against the cultural expectations of them to be silent and submissive can be discerned within the texts of Tsitsi Dangarembga’s Nervous Conditions, Bessie Head’s Maru, Sindiwe Magona’s Mother to Mother, Ama Ata Aidoo’s Changes: A Love Story, Calixthe Beyala’s The Sun Hath Looked Upon Me, Assia Djebar’s A Sister to Scheherazade, Nawal El Saadawi’s God Dies by the Nile and Emecheta Buchi’s The Joys of Motherhood.
Unmediated by the bias of male authors, these writers illuminate the oppressive relationship between man and wife in many African households. Through their eyes, readers from the Weste
Text of the Paper:
The entire text of the paper is shown below. However, the text is somewhat scrambled. We want to give you as much information as we possibly can about our papers and essays, but we cannot give them away for free. In the text below you will find that while disordered, many of the phrases are essentially intact. From this text you will be able to get a solid sense of the writing style, the concepts addressed, and the sources used in the research paper.
The third path pursued by the women like Tambudzai is to playthe scripted role in order to acquire the knowledge and skills that menhave. All they areexpected to do is to "talk, giving orders, calling down blessings orcurses..." (Djebar 128). Within her world, she expresses the grief not onlyof a mother, but a mother who lives under oppressive conditions. Fatheya in El Saadawi's Godis also a fearless woman who dares to assert her opinion and fight to herdeath for her beliefs and love of a child. Instead, shevicariously gains a powerful understanding of men's oppression of women.Her mind's eye transcends the limitations of space and time for her to goback to history and realize the immutable truth about the relationshipbetween men and women (Beyala 24). The oppressive traditions underlying the brutality of the African menundermine the capacity of women to rise above their plight. Therefore, African womenhave not been able to tap into this potential and seize the attention ofthe nation in acknowledging the importance of motherhood (Ogunyemi 46-7). More than just her frustration with injustice, Margaret's inner lifeis rich with the images of the surrounding environment. The analysis of this impressive collection of works captures theunusual beauty of the writing voices of these African female writers. Because Western women are apart of the colonialism that subjugated the African continent, it isdifficult for African women to embrace Western feminism. Ateba feels undermined by the fact she isunable to rise to his expectations (Beyala 45). The Joys of Motherhood. Beyala's The Sun captures the uniqueness of female texts thatdeliberately violates the rules of conventional "male" texts. "Urban Spaces, Women's Places: Polygamy as Sign in Mariama Ba's Novels." Nnaemeka 162-91.Ogunyemi, Chikwenye Okonjo. Tambudzai's voice that initiates the reader into Dangarembga'sNervous Conditions is one of defiance. Infact, the choice of the last two verbs is ideal in describing Hajila'ssensations at the time. Blair. London: Routledge, 1997.Nnaemeka, Obioma. In contrast, many African women view childbearing as the primaryfunction for women. London: Zed, 1985.Emecheta, Buchi. Ironically, even though Ngu Ego hasgiven birth to boys, she is trapped in a perpetual struggle to feed them.On the other hand, Adaku, who is considered the failure, has no problemsfeeding her daughter (Emecheta 167-9). Marjolilin de Jager. The intimatedescription of Margaret's love for Moleka and her internal interaction withthe outside world captures the fecundity of female perception: "He fell insomewhere with those sunrises and sunsets, and the huge, spreading beautyof an old Makoba tree, just outside her window" (Head 94). Why did she not keep off?" (Head 72). Even though her mother tries to persuade her to accepther lot in life as a woman who is doomed to suffer, Tambudzai never listensto her mother (Dangarembga 16). For African women,gender, racism and other forms of oppression intersect to present a complexproblem that is often ignored by Western feminists (Ogunyemi 114). In thisworld, even though Adaku has established her independence by acquiringwealth through her own industry, her accomplishments are negated by thefact that she has not given birth to a boy. Therefore, in order for African women to achieve solidarity, theyneed to overcome their adherence to oppressive male practices in order toimprove the lives of future generations of African women. Their struggle to survive saps their politicalwill and places a great emotional toll on them. Ateba's tearsafter her initial violent encounter with Jean are not insignificantteardrops. Even as ayoung girl, Tambudzai already cherishes the life of the river and knows toexplore in the "old deep places" (Dangarembga 4). The intimate description of the sequence of events with the use ofphrases like "Your daughter" keeps the readers constantly conscious of theinvisible mother of the white daughter. In an environment thatemasculates the men in their lives, women's self-esteem is crushed. In stark contrast, her brother hasno appreciation of the natural surroundings. For African women to liberatethemselves is not a simple task. Therefore, in their attempt to forge an united stance against femaleoppression, it is essential that Western feminists acknowledge thesefundamental differences. Similarly, Ateba's final act ofapparent madness in identifying her male victim as her best friend Ireneultimately liberates her from her banal and unjust world. For her, there isthe heavenly vision of women awaiting her at the horizon. When she is first presented tothe reader, Fatheya is already depicted as a woman who is different fromsubmissive African wives: "His wife, Fatheya, was not like his previouswives. God Dies by the Nile. InNgu Ego's case, her sons all leave her and never return until her death.She never enjoys their adulation or gratitude and spends her final days ina state of insanity (Emecheta 224). Themodern equivalent can be seen in the enthusiastic conversations between Esiand her best friend, Opokuya in Aidoo's Changes. Works Cited.Aidoo, Ama Ata. Away from the land and the rural community, Ngu Ego hasmarried a man who is dependent on the wages of white masters who havelittle respect for him and pays him little. Therefore, the rebellion of the newNigerian women sends a powerful message to their cultural community thatthey do not have to condone the abuse and disrespect that is accepted bythe traditional African community (Ogunyemi 85). The reader has toread carefully to discover the distinctive tone and vitality of this voicethat can elude the reader's attention. In the same book, when Ali decides tohave a second wife and needs the approval from his first wife, Fusena, heenlists the help of the male elders of his family. Again for women, thereis no active escape from any situation; they must stay and bear theconsequences of their actions (Dangarembga 166). She thinks that she would be misperceived as invitingattention from men (Aidoo 32). For example, Hajila's removal of her veil is describedin the following sentences: "There, you make your sudden decision to takeoff that veil! The way Nnaife was literally kidnapped and forced togo to war also illustrates the helplessness and powerlessness of theAfricans in determining their lives (Emecheta 144). In fact, by the end of the book, Mandisa has literallybecome a grieving mother for a lost child: "I have not slept since. Beyond her individual love forher child is a transcendent love that respects the love of all mothers fortheir children. There is little doubt that African women suffer inordinately from thesystem of female oppression. Even more perceptively,Margaret has captured the journey of Dikeledi in awakening to her sense ofworth (Head 1 8). The fact that she cannot accomplish her desire makes Ateba feelpowerless in her protection of the woman she loves most. Although her paralysis triggersher rebellion, it is also an image of helplessness. Patios in Djebar's The Sister serve a function similar to that of themarketplace. Margaret's connection with Dikeledi stemsfrom the latter's compassion and perception of her fragility and heressence. Within the flowing stream ofconsciousness in the paragraph, Beyala provides a powerful insight to theexperience of not just one woman, but women of all time. Deliberately shattering thestereotypical conception of a submissive and gentle female, Tambudzaiaudaciously asserts her true feelings about her brother. In amale text, such a narrator cannot possibly exist. In Ama Ata Aidoo's Changes: A Love Story, Esi's grandmother providesan image of the devastating impact of marriage on women: "[A] woman hasalways been diminished in her association with a man." According to her,women's identities are destroyed as they become consumed in theresponsibilities of being wife and mother (1 9-1 ). Although this vision seems ideal, the realitydeviates far from this vision. As if you wished to disappear... It is evident that after enduring years of suffering, they donot want their past lives to be forgotten even at the expense of improvingthe lives of the younger generations of women. By doingso, she illustrates the female need to see and to experience the world forherself, without the mediation and control of men. Betty tells her that the man she was with had "bad blood" (Beyala68). Portsmouth: Heinemann, 1987.El Saadawi, Nawal. Trenton: Africa World P, 1986.Davies, Carole Boyce. Considering the fact that motherhood can place women on a pedestal inAfrican society, it is a powerful instrument that can be used collectivelyto create changes for women. In another scene, Hajila's mother showsthat she is more interested in utilizing her daughter as a way out of herpoverty than in seeing her daughter happy. Although it would be easy for her to raise her children withinthe village setting of her hometown, Ibuza, it is a completely differentsituation in the city. In Buchi Emecheta's The Joys of Motherhood, the tug-of-war for Ona between her father and her lover, Agbadi, highlights clearlythe status of women in African society (26-7). Sherif Hetata. She is able to reasonwith her husband about the madness of the villagers' behavior in pinningthe blame on all misfortunes on the bastard child (El Saadawi 115-7). Her expeditions constitutea sacred space and time that do not permit unwelcome intruders. Therefore, she does not act in accordance with her individualdesires, but with her role as an universal mother. Foodturns to sawdust in my mouth. Ironically, Jean's image ofthe ideal woman is his mother who is fragile and kind, even though hetreats women as sexual objects. If they say we will not, then where will we get thefood"" (Emecheta 117). She writes absurdist messages about the end of the world andsends them floating down the stream. "African Womanhood: The Contrasting Perspectives of Flora Nwapa's Efuru and Elechi Amadi's The Concubine." Davies and Graves 119-3 .Beyala, Calixthe. The female text also celebrates the uniqueness and difference ofwomen's thoughts. The Sun Hath Looked Upon Me. Instead of recoiling from her mother in disgust, Ateba wants to saveher mother by "purifying each vein, each artery from bad blood" (Beyala69). By adopting thisattitude, men are sabotaging the healing process that is necessary forAfrican men and women to create a positive environment that allows bothgroups to grow in unison (Ogunyemi 1 3). The powerful description of Hajila in her first scenedescribed earlier in the section testifies to the importance of women toescape from their homes. Ironically for the new African women, theyoften marry men who are initially attracted to them because of theirintelligence and independence. Djebar's text includes every littleseemingly insignificant detail about Hajila's expeditions (41). In the oppressive relationships depicted within these books, loveseems to be a rare commodity. In Nigeria, mothersoften go out to work with their babies strapped onto their backs with thelappa. Rather, solong as they have obeyed the men in their actions, they have done the"right" thing. However, female African writers, such asFlora Nwapa, have challenged this notion by apportioning a part of thisresponsibility on men (Ogunyemi 17 ). Ona day-to-day basis, African women thus become the unfortunate targets oftheir husbands who vent out their frustration on them (Ogunyemi 12). The reconstruction of African identity for both men andwomen is integral to the vision of African womanism (Ogunyemi 124). Like a hungry, deprived being, Hajila almost hurlsherself into the embrace of life. Therefore,she is frustrated with the blindness of the dead daughter in her "all-consuming, fierce and burning compulsion" (Magona 2) to do good in theworld even when the world is not ready to become the utopia she envisions.Mandisa speaks to the white daughter's mother because her son would be freeif not for the fact that the victim is white (Magona 2). More importantly, trapped within these environs, she has begun to loseher identity--a woman that can be easily substituted by any other female.In fact, unknowingly, Hajila has become the substitute for a former wifewho has fled her responsibilities within this conventional Africanhousehold. Ateba's violent act isa powerful message that men's imposition of sexual power on women alsokills. Trans. Initially, Ateba inCalixthe Beyala's The Sun Hath Looked Upon Me contemplates a possible loveunion with Jean when he approaches her politely for the first time.However, even in her fantasy, she already realizes that his politeness issimply a veneer for him to get her in bed with him, nothing more (39). They allow us not only to see their pain andsuffering, but also initiate us into their rich and vibrant imagination,their intellectual development that prevents them from surrendering to thepressure imposed upon them to conform. Thus, from the banality of her surroundings, she isthrust into a cosmic and moral realm. All joy has fled my house and my heartbleeds, it sorrows for you, for the pain in which you have been plunged. By this unusual acknowledgement, Magona hassucceeded in weaving a thread that binds two women who do not know eachother, even though the thread is smeared with the blood of one child. Trans. However, the improvement of the lives of African women continues tobe thwarted by the male establishment that does not show respect to women(Ogunyemi 54). Even Ngu Ego inEmecheta's Joys cares about Nnaife's welfare even though he treats herbadly. Ultimately, even for African women, the importance of theirchildbearing power does not protect them from abuse and injustice. Unmediated by the bias of male authors, these writers illuminate theoppressive relationship between man and wife in many African households.Through their eyes, readers from the Western world can begin to understandthe vast cultural differences that separate Western women from Africanwomen. Although he claimsthat he is entitled to a second wife under the Islamic law, he has notcomplied with the real tradition (Nnaemeka 172).By these standards, Ali has violated the law in various aspects.Consequently, he has perverted their tradition and inflicted unduesuffering on the women in his lives. Yet, throughout the weddingpreparations, she feels her lack of courage to speak her own mind. More than just a mother, she is a humanbeing who is willing to give up her life to protect the innocent and standup for her beliefs and faith in God. Herawareness of this reality means that Tambudzai enables her to cross theline into a world of self-assertion and identity. In the scene when Jean tries torape her, Ateba's mind flees away into the stars and the seas. Tambudzai's description of this world depicts this journeyclearly. Regardless of the poor treatment they receive fromtheir husbands, African women are respected by their sons (Ogunyemi 12).Older women exercise tremendous power over the lives and households oftheir sons, along with the community. In defiance of the practice ofpolygamy that undermines the identity of the women, educated women haveresorted to creating relationships outside of marriages that aresatisfactory to them (Ogunyemi 83-4). Mother to Mother. In fact,it is a double-edged sword that should be embraced with qualification. It is in this private domain whereMargaret "speaks" freely. Once again, the lives and the worlds ofwomen are usurped by the men in their lives. In this oppressive world for women,women must learn to negotiate adroitly with men by using feminine wileslike Lucia to get what they want. Africa Wo/man Palava: The Nigerian Novel by Women. By using an interesting narrative style, Djebar's A Sister brilliantlydepict the intertwining lives of women. With her succinct poetic lines, Beyala quicklyestablishes a character whose sensibility allows her to defy men'sdisrespect of women. According to her, the British whooppress her father is the real culprit who is responsible for heroppression (Sugnet 37). In many ways,in their self-sacrificing nature, the traditional African mothers embodypositive female qualities of creativity and enterprise that distinguishthem from the men who are incapable of creating and maintaining life(Ogunyemi 61). Although she is a woman of few words, she speaks on a differentand unconscious level and inadvertently seduces the two most attractive andpowerful bachelors of the village, Maru and Moleka. New York: George Braziller, 1979.Head, Bessie. While Dikeledi is obsessed with hermarriage to Moleka, Margaret is literally carried away by Maru while she istrapped in a state of paralysis. Some Africanwomen have benefited from the liberating influences of Western education(Ogunyemi 95). Western Feminism The central difference that divides African women from Western womenis colonial oppression. Her knowledgeand relationship with Nyasha have thrust her into a higher plane ofawareness. Her powerlessness dissipates when shesees herself not only as one fragile woman, but "thousands of women"(Beyala 9). Although Aidoo claims to be presenting a love story in her book,Changes, the love affair between Esi and Ali revolves more around mutualsex than love. Beyond the individualized messages of these paintings, Maru isimpressed by Margaret's celebration of the women in creating the new world.In her paintings, Margaret deliberately highlights the physical exertion ofthe women in their daily tasks (Head 1 7-8). Instead I said quietly and politely, "Very well, Babamukuru. Symbolic of her defiance oftradition, Hajila removes her veil (Djebar 3 ). In direct opposition to Western feminists' call for men to share inthe responsibility of parenting, Nigerian women see such a development asan elimination of their power. Inadvertently, the children serve asa protection for their mothers against the expectations and judgments ofsociety (Ogunyemi 9). New York: McCall, 1971.Ibrahim, Huma. She wants the stars to be herwitnesses (Beyala 9). Tambudzai' depiction of her homeenvironment is a sensuous landscape that entices every sense in the body.Beyond the bombardment of the senses, Tambudzai leads the reader smoothlyfrom a physical landscape into a private and female domain: "Across andaround the lowest of these boulders, the river flowed sparsely in a dryseason, but deeply enough in places when the rains were heavy to cover achild's head and to engulf me to my nipples" (Dangarembga 3). Femalecamaraderie is integral to building female unity and consciousness(Ogunyemi 54-5). To her, herbrother symbolizes the fundamental injustice of male oppression. The older womenrealize that education has not helped advance the rights of women inasserting their wishes (Aidoo 1 6-7). The intrusion of Western influence also adversely affects theultimate fate of Ngu Ego in her sacrifice to motherhood. African educated men thus turn into co-conspirators with thecolonialists in oppressing African women and uneducated men (Ogunyemi 95).Nawal El Saadawi's God Dies by the Nile shows the debilitating impact on avillage by a corrupt mayor who will resort to murder and crime to get thewoman of his desire. The colonial oppression plays a large role in eroding the self-esteemand integrity of the African women by destroying male superiority withinthe African cultural structure. Ironically, it is her acquiescence atsomething that her heart rejects so vehemently that makes her realize that"[t]here was definitely something wrong with me" (Dangarembga 164). Unlike her husband who is a corrupted priest,Fatheya shows herself to have great faith in God. Inthe powerful paragraph that starts this story, she states clearly hermessage: "...my story is not after all about death, but about my escape andLucia's; about my mother's and Miguru's entrapment..." (Dangarembga, 1).This voice reverberates with strength and conviction; at the same time,there is no question that it is the voice of a woman. Oxford: Heinnemann, 1996.Dangarembga, Tsitsi. Ngambika: Studies of Women in African Literature. Already in the beginning of the book, Ateba has tapped into theextraordinary potential of the collective power that resides within thesolidarity of women. Female texts are powerful in shattering traditional conventions thathave suppressed the assertion of female identity and beliefs. Thesetexts are refreshing because they dare to speak about the pain andsuffering of women crushed under the yoke of male patriarchy. This is a realitythat Mandisa tries to get across to the white mother who lives in anotherworld and cannot understand the experience of being oppressed. However, when Dikeledi presents her with a box of paints, Margaretdiscovers the medium of communicating her subconscious thoughts andfeelings to her lovers, Maru and Moleka. "Nervous Conditions: Dangarembga's Feminist Reinvention of Fanon." Nnaemeka 33-49. Many of the femalecharacters in the contemporary times have only achieved salvation andhappiness by renouncing their dependence on men. Losing a privatespace where she has been allowed to express her unique identity literallyleads to an almost-death for her. The helplessness of the mothers who are unable to control the actionsof their adult children is captured in Mandisa's final lamentation to theother mother, whom she now calls "my Sister-Mother." Together, they arebound by a tragedy of motherhood-the untimely loss of children. In this oppressive world, Margaret protects her essence byprojecting a self that is merely a shadow of "another personality of greatvigor and vitality" (Head 71). Instead, she provides a meekresponse to her uncle's request. One cannot mistake thevoice of a woman in these fecund images. Instead of accepting traditional practices as givens, femalewriters question male supremacy, the degradation of women and celebrate thecreativity of women (Ogunyemi 1 3). Here, wesee again the need for the female voice to suppress her true thoughts.Tambudzai wants so badly to assert herself and realizes that in her heart,she needs to shout so that she can be heard. These works mark the journey of thepainful formation of that voice and a creation of a world that celebratesthe African female identity. Fundamentally, this traditionrates above all other considerations. Such marriages destroy the being of thewoman. African womenhave been able to establish their independence away from men by pursuingtheir own careers. Dorothy S. In reality, she does nothave a female role model that matches his description. This double standard has erected a great barrier betweenthe unity of African men and women. The violence of this image and thesubsequent descriptions of killing a young girl encapsulate the extent ofher suppressed rage against the injustice of this world against her and herpeople. Unlike many of the other female characters in this selection ofbooks, Esi's main focus is not on giving birth to babies, but on her work.In fact, it is her interest in her work that sets her up in opposition toher parents and her first husband, Oko, and his parents who continue toadhere to the traditional way of life. However, women have also become victimized in a foreignworld where their husbands create mutant traditions that pervert thetraditions. In the old days, the occupation of trading allowed womento leave the isolation of their homes to mingle with the outside world atthe marketplace, interact with other women and earn needed income. Head's depiction of her"voice" captures the dynamic essence: "All the force of her life wasdirected to her eyes, as though that were the only living part of her.Something killed the old Moleka in a flash and out of one death arose, in aflash a new Moleka" (Head 32). Furthermore, they are considered topossess supernatural powers (Ogunyemi 46). Althoughshe is not physically present in Hajila's life, Isma feels her pain. Byconstantly fathering children, Nnaife ensures that Ngu Ego is stuck withthe perpetual need of caring for newborns and older children (Emecheta137). More than just a sex object and mother, she finallyrecognizes that she is a complete individual full of creativity andenterprise, without the trappings of marriage and motherhood (Banyiwa-Horne125). For a daughter, the mother represents the ultimate woman thatinfluences the development of her identity and role as a woman. They tap into theexcitement and the life-giving force that women experience when they rebelagainst conventions. When she moves, he accuses her of shamelessness" (Beyala33). Tambudzai's moment of rebellion occurs when she objects to thetravesty of a wedding for her parents. This passageresonates with beauty and the celebration of the cycle of life that defiesthe linear logic of male thinking. When she discovers that Hajilahas been going out everyday, she throws a dramatic fit (45). In Beyala'sThe Sun, Ateba idolizes her mother, Betty, before the latter abandons her.Although Betty is a prostitute, Ateba still emulates her; she simply wantsto become her mother in every way (52). Seattle: Seal, 1988.Davies, Carol Boyce, and Anne Adams Graves, eds. Therefore, love for Ateba is only afantasy that lives in books--a world that is alien to her pervertedreality. They realize that their erotic nature has been both asource of imprisonment and power. However, in spite of her independence, Esi still choose to surrenderto Ali's pressure to become a second wife. Trans. In Head's Maru that is seemingly dominated by the actions andpresence of men, the power of the women is displayed by the intense effectsthey have over the men who care about them. Instead, they are "[transformed] into one gigantic lake" thathas the extraordinary power to purify her. Finding the Oppressed Voice in the African Female Text Amidst the sound and the fury of their lives that are controlled bycolonialists and the men, African women's voices have been stifled.However, the voices of the African women rebelling against the culturalexpectations of them to be silent and submissive can be discerned withinthe texts of Tsitsi Dangarembga's Nervous Conditions, Bessie Head's Maru,Sindiwe Magona's Mother to Mother, Ama Ata Aidoo's Changes: A Love Story,Calixthe Beyala's The Sun Hath Looked Upon Me, Assia Djebar's A Sister toScheherazade, Nawal El Saadawi's God Dies by the Nile and Emecheta Buchi'sThe Joys of Motherhood. Like the protagonists in the film"Thelma and Louise," Ateba does not face the consequences of her murder ina world that is controlled by men. Djebar's narrator, Isma, the "I"persona, is literally speaking to Hajila and empathizing with her existencewithout being physically present. In these modern days, education has become increasingly accessible towomen (Ogunyemi 59). In fact, the women's actionsare irrelevant in a man's world, whether they are good or bad. Nyasha in Tsitsi Dangarembga's Nervous Conditions does not see herselfas a victim of her father's oppression. The clash between these tworealities and environments make her life a constant struggle. In Aidoo's Changes, Alidecides that he wants to marry Esi as a second wife. For Tambudzai, the importance of the story does not revolve aroundmen. "Ontological Victimhood: "Other" Bodies in Madness and Exile- toward a Third World Feminist Epistemology." Nnaemeka 147-161.Magona, Sindiwe. Furthermore, once they enter into a marriage contract at theinsistence of Ali, Ali's interest in Esi fades away. In thisfemale text, Beyala grants her character salvation. What African womanists strive to do is to confront the problemsplaguing the dysfunctional relationships between men and women. In Emecheta'sJoys, when Ngu Ego and Adaku finally reconcile with one another, theyrealize that they are both victims of a male-dominated world. In fact, African female characters that go mad abound in the femaleliterature. In a radical shift of ambiance, theviolence of the crime that she has committed is replaced by the radiatingvision of her being walking towards the horizon (Beyala 119-2 ). However, there is no doubt that the western feminist perception hasinfiltrated into the minds of the new African women. Under colonial rule, African women, men andchildren all became unwarranted victims (Ogunyemi 112). When the Mayor in El Saadawi's God asserts that all women""...have lost all morality," his wife quickly countered him with thisremark: "Why not admit that it's men who no longer have any morals"" (39).The dependence of the morality of women on men's perception is capturedsuccinctly in Beyala's The Sun. However, forAteba, her love for her mother is constantly betrayed by Betty's preferenceand dependence on a man for her happiness (Beyala 81). The "female" thoughts allow their thinkers to liberatethemselves from the subjugation by men. Thus, an invisible thread links the two women together in theoverall tapestry that depicts the untold suffering of female oppression.Therefore, even before they meet and conspire to provide Hajila theopportunity to abort her baby, they are already joined in solidarity inspirit. Ultimately, the male voice of authority has nothing to dowith the men's sense of morality or rightness, but is simply an arbitraryexercise of power (Dangarembga 171). Even a highly traditional woman like Esi in Emecheta's Joys recognizesthe fact that motherhood is more a trap than a source of power for her.Because of her love for her children, she will never leave her children. Although most of the male characters are portrayed negatively in thisselection of books, there are a few men who deviate from the negativeportraits. The unique conversationbetween these two girls feeds their souls and quenches their thirst to beloved and understood. While Western feminists see men as the enemy, African women stillembrace their husbands and sons-the men in their lives. The intimate mother-to-mother dialogue that frames the telling of thestory in Magona's Mother to Mother establishes a world of the female voice.In her grief for the loss of another mother's daughter and her own son,Mandisa has successfully created a world that banishes the voices of otherpeople, including men. Haunted by the images in herdreams, she is only able to exorcise them by painting them. In the foreign environment of a modern city, African men seek toimpose traditions on women that can work only in the rural areas and thuscreate a travesty of the traditional practices. In a hostile environment that undermines the opinionsand voices of women and crushes their existence, women like Margaret arediscovering different ways of "speaking," of asserting their uniqueidentities. Furthermore, communal mothering in Nigeria provides a strong supportnetwork that frees mothers from worrying about child-care and babysitting(Ogunyemi 78). By introducing new values and lifestyles, the white peoplehave created a rift between men and women and generations. Stripped of her rewards of motherhood, Ngu Ego who hassacrificed her life and identity to raise her children, succumb to madness.Tragically, madness serves as a private and privileged space that allowswomen to escape from the rules of patriarchy (Ibrahim 156-7). Therefore, it is important for Western feminists torecognize the power and strength exuded by the mother figure. In fact, in thetraditional African society, the status of women is elevated when theydemonstrate that they are not barren. Thus, along with their husbands, African women also contribute tothe emasculation of their homeland by white people (Ogunyemi 11). What African women strive for is not the elimination of menfrom their existence, but a way with which to bring women and men togetherin a positive relationship (Ogunyemi 115-7). According to Western feminists, women's capacity to give birth hasresulted in her condition of dependence on the men in their lives (Ogunyemi8). Unfortunately, some educated women such as Maiguru,relinquish their awareness when they compromise excessively. Thatwill make things much easier for everybody"" (Dangarembga 164). Essentially, for African women, both African womanism andWestern feminism present valid alternative routes for women to pursue. Furthermore, women are beginning to acquire a deeper understanding oftheir sexuality. In traditional African society, mencapture this erotic power by imposing men's will over women in marriages inwhich rape sex is commonplace and unspoken. While Dikeledi begins totap into the inner realms of the soul, Margaret has gained the courage toelicit the "powerful woman who [dwells] behind the insignificant shadow"(Head 112). AlthoughDikeledi thinks that Margaret's depiction of her brother, Maru, indicatesthat Maru has the power to shape Margaret's dreams (Head 1 4), the truth iscloser to the fact that Margaret's subconscious world has become dividedinto two rooms that are described in the first few pages of the book. or explode" (Djebar 3 ). She possesses a voice of beauty that is reservedonly for her soul, to feed her being so that it does not perish from theinjustices of the world. Unlike the individualistic quality of feminism, African women's brandof womanism seeks to include the healing process of a community (Ogunyemi119). The beginning of Hajila's coming-into-being occurs when she leavesthe isolation of her home to take a walk. However, Tambudzai's growth comes from her realization that she is nottrue to herself by conforming to the cultural expectations. However, the problem arises from the factthat many rural women are illiterate and therefore do not identify with thefemale writers' use of words to express their beings and identities.However, this discrepancy can only be resolved with the future generationsof young girls who are now learning to read (Ogunyemi 1 2). African Womanism vs. The Forging of Identity and the Search for the Female Voice in the African Female Text The African female text is essential because it gives a voice to thewomen who were once silenced. The respect accorded to the African matriarch stems from that factthat she has devoted her life to ensure the survival of her children.African mothers are often the only people shouldering the burden of raisingtheir children. Inthe modern age with the advent of education that straddles the modern andtraditional worlds, men and their families still expect women to give uptheir independence and growth. From a youngage, she has been conscious of the unjust treatments meted out to her(Dangarembga 12). After all, women with their eroticnature and other qualities are transformed into sex objects only throughthe male gaze. According to AnnetteKolodny, men do not wish to read women's texts, though they expect women toread men's texts. Even though she cannot speak in thismonologue, the white mother's existence and pain is not diminished by herabsence. Most of all, they need a stage without a visibleaudience, without being dependent on the need to be acknowledged with aresponse. Inspite of her fantasy of a love affair with him, she dresses in tightclothes designed to entice his sexual interest. Of all theworks, Beyala's The Sun, Djebar's A Sister and Magona's Mother to Mother,stand out the most because they conjure up a world that is seen completelyfrom the female perspective. Behind her seemingly quiet demeanor, Margaret experiences theturmoil of her emotions that she does not unleash on the outside world. The differences in the attitudes can beattributed to the cultural differences and way of life. African womanists do not want to relinquish completely thispossibility. Throughout these texts, the heroines are perpetually carving a spacefor themselves so that they can speak without interruption, with the fearof breaking rules. Furthermore, in her economic andemotional independence from Oko, Esi is unwilling to put up with maritalrape-a common occurrence in traditional African marriages (Aidoo 11). At the time, she realizes that sheonly writes to women without knowing the reason (Beyala 22-3). For these women, the important first step is to assert themselvesand their identity so that they can exist without the recognition of themen in their lives and the families. Until the end of her life, she remainsa prisoner, stripped of all choices. Margaret's normal voice dares not elevate ordinary womenonto the pedestal of life, but in her paintings, she can "speak" withcourage and strength. In thisspace, their minds are free to wander, their hearts are free to break andtheir beings are beyond the control of men. Itis heavy and knows no rest" (Head 199). In The Sister, Djebar's description of Hajila's first expeditionout of her home contains short staccato sentences. Tambudzai's assertive female voice finds a place with her free-spirited cousin, Nyasha. Therefore, Margaret is the one who is in control of her mind andemotions. Looming over the oppression that occurs within the African patriarchyis the colonial oppression that of all African people. In her tone, it isevident that she does not care what anyone thinks about her character.Essentially, she has liberated herself from social perception. However, unlike thesex depicted in the marriages of many other couples, at least the two ofthem actually enjoy one another and the sexual experience. Thefinal poignant image of Fatheya who dies to save a baby captures herincredible strength and courage. However, older women often betray younger women by consolidating theexisting structure of injustice towards women by acting abusively to them.They conspire with other men to enforce the validity of this system bymonitoring women's activity and suppressing their attempts to strive forindependence. In the other room, the one shehas banished completely from her conscious mind, she loves Moleka (Head 8-9). When Hajila refuses tospeak to a man who approaches her, she begins to exercise her right as anindividual who has a private space (Djebar 42). It daringlydefies logic and reality by invoking the poetic imagination. They provide women who are cloistered in their households tocommune with one another. If they say we eat,then we will eat. Like Hajila's desire of being in the outdoors,all these women simply want to enjoy "one patch of sky" (Djebar 78-9). They have risen through the ranks to participate inmaking corporate deals and work in other occupations that were once thesole domain of men (Ogunyemi 55). In Djebar's A Sister, the woman who watches all the goings-on in thetown, Lla Hadja, tells on a young woman's attempt to attract the attentionof a young man. Ali's first wife has not even met Esi (Aidoo 97). Beyond being playful, the female text captures the dynamic and motionof life. Thus, they await their moment before they establish theirindependence. So long as she plays this part, she knows that she willnot get into any trouble. In hersearch for answers about the right actions to take with regards to her son,she literally asks the other mother, even though she is not there (Head198). While this can be regarded as an enforcement of moralauthority, it should be noted that the young woman is in a forced marriagewith an ailing old man (114-7). Women who flaunt theirsexuality are considered immoral. Babamukuru punishes her not because of her specific actions, butbecause she has failed to be obedient to him. The long-term legacy of the colonial days continues to plague theAfrican people. This empathy extends to every woman who istrapped in the endless routine of boring housework, female degradation anddisrespect of their husbands. Duringthat period, women are considered to have paid their dues. African women with great sensibilitiesconstantly hold out for the possibilities of love. In fact, the communion between Dikeledi and Margaret begin to revolvearound the paintings. I don't want to be in your stupid wedding," I wanted toshout. Boston: Beacon, 1998.Nnaemeka, Obioma, ed. The Emergence of Female Identity The scene in Djebar's A Sister where Hajila is first introduced tothe reader captures the condition of imprisonment of the African housewife(7). They seekto tap into the positive qualities of both genders so that they can riseabove their problems and improve the welfare of the African people(Ogunyemi 123). Therefore, the relationship between the two women hasenabled their beings to come to complete fruition. The Politics of (M)othering: Womanhood, Identity, and Resistance in African Literature. Both her mother andher aunt indulge in promiscuous sex. Isma is an unusual omniscient narratorbecause she does not relate the story with detachment. She addresses Hajilawith an intimate pronoun "you," as though they know one another. Interspersed with her descriptions of her past life are passagesin which Mandisa addresses the mother directly in a voice that is filledwith regret and anguish, "And your daughter, did she not go to school?...Why? Forexample, when Dikeledi rescues her from the classroom, Margaret realizesthat her thoughts are far from the quiet demeanor she presents to herabusive children in the class: "I thought I had a stick in my hands and wasbreaking their necks" (Head 47). Without land, she is dependent on insufficient wagesfrom her husband and her trading goods (137). Theessential difference is that women now have more choices and are allowed toassert them. Western feministsare alien from the oppression suffered by the African people (Ogunyemi118). Either women speak in a male language, or are condemned tosilence, or lose their minds (in Ogunyemi 1 2-3). In spite of her free-spirited nature, Ona's unwillingness to decide between the two men showshow her independence is compromised. For example, when Nyasha attempts to question her mother,Maiguru, on a technicality of the sermon, her father, Bamakuru snaps at herwith the remark: ""Don't you know it's not good for a child to be talkingall the time?..."" (Dangarembga 1 ). Esi, the main female protagonist inAidoo's Changes, represents the new African woman who has a thrivingcareer. Even Esi, in Aidoo's Changes, who represents the generation ofeducated women of Africa is extremely self-conscious about drinking alonein a hotel lobby. In a traditionalsystem, mothers can look forward to being taken care of by their sons. An essential part of the emergence of female identity is for women tocome together to share their experiences, pain and aspirations. Ateba thinks that man is unreasonable inhis expectations of women in sex: "When she doesn't move, he blames her forher passivity. Ngu Egocaptures the power of the colonial hierarchy in her rhetorical question:""Are we not all slaves to the white men, in a way?... They promise him thatthey will ask the older ladies to exert pressure on Fusena. However, Isma is a highlyimaginative creation of an African writer who has succeeded in capturingthe tragedy of all African wives. Nervous Conditions. More than just a function, motherhood is an integralpart of the African female identity (Davies 243). Changes: A Love Story. Most of the femalecharacters in this selection of books are forced to endure marital rape andbeatings in their marriages. Sheis fearless in her natural ability to "[thrive] on inconsistencies and liketo chart them so that she [can] turn her attention to the next set ofproblems in the hope of finding fundamental solutions" (Dangarembga 116).However, in order to be accepted and liked, Tambudzai sees that she needsto "[take] refuge in the image of the grateful poor female relative"(Dangarembga 116). On a practical level, Isma's familiaritywith Hajila's life stems from the fact that she was the former wife ofHajila's current husband. She can no longer lie toherself. However, once they enter into the marriage,their husbands often demand that they give up their careers in favor oflooking after the family (Aidoo 45). They become ameans for women to voice their beliefs in their way and break the silencethat has been imposed upon them by centuries of male and colonialoppression. Chicago/London: U of Chicago P, 1996.Sugnet, Charles. "Motherhood in the Works of Male and Female Igbo Writers: Achebe, Emecheta, Nwapa and Nzekwu." Davies and Graves, 241- 56.Djebar, Assia. According to Isma in Djebar's ASister, life for the woman "can begin at forty, or at sixty" (128). As explained by Opokuya to Esi, thehusband can only marry the second wife with the agreement of the firstwife. Tambudzai's story is the liberation of women from male oppression. While Ngu Egobelieves initially that her primary function and concern in life is to givebirth to sons, she realizes too late that her objective does not match herenvironment. So on the morning of the wedding, her body speaks before she cansummon the courage to speak with her voice. Inone room, Margaret devotes her love to Maru. However, forher, it is not a fantasy, an escape from her torment. In fact, the most expressive aspects of her being are notexternalized, but dwells within her inner soul that is rarely unveiled toanyone. Even for the new generation of women, Esi and Opokuya depicted inAidoo's Changes, they have to wrestle with the traditions of marriages. In the case ofAfrican women who lived during the colonial era, the level of enslavementis intensified by the oppression of the colonial administration thatdefined their living environment and their very existence (Ogunyemi 8). Apart from this assertive female voice that commands attention, thefemale voice is in a constant state of metamorphosis. Her decision is problematic and disturbingbecause it does not reflect tremendous thought or an assertion ofindividuality. In her outbursts, Mandisa echoesthe cries of the other mother. In order for African women to rise above their oppressed status, theyneed to tap into the powerful and unique female energy that radiates fromtheir unique voices that deviate from the ethnocentric perspective of whitewomen. Many of the femaleprotagonists in the texts, such as Esi in Aidoo's Changes and Isma in AssiaDjebar's A Sister to Scheherazade, have daringly defied conventions to beindependent. To Ngu Ego, Nnaife is adisgrace to the male African community because he performs the womanly taskof washing clothes. Dangarembga's description of their firstconversation that breaks the ice between them is a evocative portrait ofthe communion between two young women who have created a space where theycan speak their minds: "The conversation that followed was a long, involvedconversation, full of guileless openings up and intricate lettings out andlettings in. Her decision seems to be a blindadherence to male desire. New York: Feminist P, 1993.Banyiwa-Horne, Naana. They are bound by their common experience of racial and colonialoppression. Men who are unwilling to hear thedistinctive and unique voice of women demand from women an unfaircompromise. InEmecheta's Joys, the life of Ngu Ego's family takes place under the shadowof colonial rule. Her question is not whatwould a mother do in such a situation, but what would any mother do if theytruly understand the nature of motherhood. The discrepancy between the traditional values and the reality ofWesternized cities is also highlighted in Emecheta's Joys. In conformity with the stylistic defiance of her text, Beyala takeartistic license in her powerful ending. African women are overwhelmed by theirduties as mother and wife. Even though they seem to be minority, they are the vital seedsthat can lead to the rejuvenation of a new relationship between men andwomen. Their private world is all the more precious considering the factthat they are not allowed to speak their minds or assert themselves inother contexts. Even aloner like Ateba in Beyala's The Sun seeks to commune with women in hereccentric way. A more promising development of the independent female figure can beseen in Efuru, the protagonist of Flora Nwapa's book of the same name.Unsuccessful in two marriages and condemned by other women for her maritalfailure and her inability to bear a son, Efuru carves an independent nichefor herself in society. A Sister to Scheherazade. ""Do nottake me at all. The love of a daughter for themother is captured in this poignant scene when Ateba massages her motherback. Or else, women like Nyasha keep bumpingagainst the walls of authority until they almost die from their perpetualstruggles. When Tambudzai goes away to a convent school and thisspecial world is shattered, Nyasha loses her sense of being and turns toanorexia nervosa to escape from her controlling father. What matters is that out of all thesuffering from earlier generations of women, such as Ngu Ego and Zakeya, isborn the courage for women of the new generations to find their voice andspeak out against their oppression in order to create their own existenceand live a decent life. In the African society where women are expected to follow scriptswritten by men, women are not allowed to develop independent thinking.Nyasha poses a severe threat to this world because she is a woman whorefuses to follow these scripts and explores her thoughts thoroughly. In the assertion of their individuality, African women have begun tochallenge the institution of polygamy. From the day of their inception, women arecontrolled by men, first in their fathers' houses, and after marriage, intheir husbands' house. In order for Tambudzai to realize her true being, she needs tosurrender herself to the unknown and embark on an uncertain journey: "Ididn't want to reach the end of those mazes, because there, I knew, I wouldfind myself and I was afraid I would not recognize myself after havingtaken so many confusing directions" (Dangarembga 116). What further oppresses the common people is the colonists'installation of corrupt locals who wield their power arbitrarily over thecommon people. Maru. An importance advancement that has enabled new African women toincrease their independence is by earning their own money. The comparison of thesegirls' conversation to that of lovers deliberately challenges the primacyof heterosexual relationships in women's lives. In a contradictory hierarchy, while African men aremasters of their household, they act like women because they performdomestic tasks liked their wives in the white households (Emecheta 5 ).African women are at the base of this hierarchy. Women's texts are challenging for men who are accustomed to malewriting that are defined by rules and standards. Thewomen's childbearing power is highly controlled within a male-dominatedcontext in which women can exercise few rights or assert theirindividuality (Davies 242). In other contexts except in theprivacy of their own world, young girls are expected to be seen and notheard, certainly not when they have the intelligence to challengeconventions. Margaret, born a Masarwa, wouldhave been doomed by her origins if not for the essence that emanates fromher being. However, even these promising developments of the relationships failto affect their external worlds. Elwau and Galal in El Saadawi's God are both representatives ofgood men. None of them would ever have dared to look him straight in theface..." (El Saadawi 27). What is impressive about Tambudzai is her unwillingness to surrenderto the inequality between males and females in her society. Beyond the external conversations, they aresubconsciously bringing forth the dormant aspects of the each other'spersonalities. In an environment that constantly degradestheir husbands who submit to white authority, African women have tosuppress even more of their identity and beliefs in order to support theirhusbands. Magona provides a character with anempathetic perspective who tries to recollect the white mother's daughter'sfinal moments before her death. It was the sort of conversation that young girls have withtheir best friends, that lovers have under the influence of the novelty anduniqueness of their love..." (Dangarembga 78). Therefore,she announces to the reader that she is not sorry about her brother'sdeath.
If this paper is not what you are looking for, you can search again:
or
We can write a Custom Essay just for you.
Browse Essays by Subject