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FIRES IN ENTERTAINMENT FACILITIES.
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Surveys several large fires.... More...
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Paper Abstract:
Surveys several large fires. Resulting loss of life and social, economic and political impact each had on society. The Cocoanut Grove Lounge fire in Boston, Massachusetts.; The Beverly Hills Supper Club fire in Southgate, Kentucky; the Happy Land Fire in the Bronx, New York. Causes of the fires. Damage. Fire prevention.
Paper Introduction:
Entertainment Facility Fires
On December 5, 1876, a major fire occurred in the Brooklyn Theater in New York when a stage backdrop ignited and 295 people were killed (Robertson, 1989, p. 8). Unfortunately, the tragedy of the Brooklyn Theater fire was followed by a fire in the Iroquois Theater in 1903, which was considered Chicago's safest theater at the time. A light set a curtain on fire and because there was insufficient planning for egress in case of a fire, human logjams and inadequate venting caused the death of 603 people. The Iroquois Theater fire, however, did provide substantial impetus to the fire prevention movement, especially in the field of public assembly occupancies (Robertson, 1989, p. 8). This paper surveys several fires that have occurred in public assembly occupancies since these earlier fires to review the social, economic and
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Unfortunately, it appears we still have a lot more to learn. Upstairs in Crystal Rooms 1, 2and 3, about 1 people from the Greater Cincinnati Choral Union werefinishing their dinner and fashion show while 1 or so members of theAfghan Hound Club of Southwestern Ohio were just sitting down to eat inRooms 4, 5 and 6. A report in the January 1978 edition of FireJournal found that there was very little panic during the early stage ofthe fire, and the employees and managed to warn patrons and assist themfrom the building. (March 24, 1999). In particular, theworld learned of the efficacy of penicillin as an antibiotic to preventinfection. in search of clubs that maybe operating illegally. By 1943, 29 pounds of penicillinhad been shipped abroad for war use and by mid-1944 there was enoughpenicillin available for a rationed distribution to civilian hospitals. Most of the victims died from smoke and a mixtureof gases created when the fire consumed flammable materials such as seatcushions (Long & Fisher, 1997). In fact, fire codes have historically beenamended based on headlines. The service notes that individuals and groups often act inpredictable ways when faced with the prospect of fire. 114).Beverly Hills Supper Club, Southgate, KY (1977) On the night of May 28, 1977, the Beverly Hills Supper Club inSouthgate, Kentucky burned to the ground, claiming the lives of 165 people.The fire occurred on the Memorial Day weekend when the Supper Club wasfilled to capacity (Long & Fisher, 1997). iii). Holocaust! Fire Commissioner Thomas Von Essensaid the drop in fire deaths was the result of emergency medical traininggiven to firefighters, and the new protective bunker gear they wear. At ten o'clock, a small flame erupted in the back of the MelodyLounge, caused either by the busboy, Stanley Tomaszewski, or by the faultywiring in the club. Moreover, the UFC notes thatfire codes have evolved beyond their traditional roles as maintenance codesand now address many issues related to new construction and special hazardsin buildings (UFC, 1997, p. The product was subsequently taken off themarket (Long & Fisher, 1997). and 9:3 a.m. 8). 8). If the stafffails to provide leadership and direction, the evacuation is furtherdelayed (Idea Bank, 2 ). Introduction to Fire Prevention, 3rd Ed. The Code also governs the placement of exit doors, aisles, hand-rails and seats, the provision of panic hardware and a variety of othersafety measures (§§ 25 generally) (UFC, 1997). 1 ). The Upper West Side City Council is currently considering a bill thatwill require sprinklers in new apartment towers and public-address systemsin all existing high-rises. "Twenty Years Later, Anguish Still Burns." The Cincinnati Post. The Idea Bank offers businesses and employers information on how totrain their employees in preparation for a fire in a place of publicassembly. The NFPA also cited toxic fumes as another significant cause of deathin the Supper Club fire. that night it began smoldering. The code was updated in 1973 and has since beenpublished on a three-year schedule. While someresearchers attribute the blaze to a busboy's match, others have blamedfaulty wiring. The walls were also lined withthin plywood, which hid the disaster just long enough to increase the levelof danger. However, the patrons in the Cabaret Room were unaware ofthe impending disaster. Panic is often pointed to as a primary cause of death in publicassembly fires (Idea Bank, 2 ). 9).Many of the patrons in the Club that night lived in other jurisdictionsthat strongly enforced their codes for public assembly occupancies.Robertson notes that national political leaders raised the question of thepropriety of citizens of one jurisdiction being exposed to fire danger whenvisiting an area where code enforcement is not as stringent (Robertson,1989, p. In fact,the NFPA stated that the Life Safety Code in effect in Kentucky at the timeof the fire would have prevented the large loss of life if it had beenfollowed (Long & Fisher, 1997). Thus, groups tend to rely on the staff for information. Eventually, Chesley's lawsuit would name more than 1, defendants,including almost every insurance company in Kentucky. iii). Also,the sequence of ordering, eating, paying is ingrained and rarely broken(Idea Bank, 2 ). Moreover, although the legal occupancy in the roomwas set at 511, there were between 1,2 and 1,3 people in the room thatnight (Long & Fisher, 1997). Since its initiation, the code hasbecome internationally recognized for its role in setting the pace of fireprevention, fire protection and public safety (UFC, 1997, p. Uniform Fire Code, Volumes 1-2. Thus, in 1996, fires killed 149 civilians, a number lower than anyyear since 1959 and a significant decrease from the record high of 31 deaths by fire in 197 (Topousis, 1997). Chesley claimed that the seat cushions were combustibleand aided the fire (Fisher, 1997a). Horn, D. & Fisher, J. International Conference of Building Officials & Western Fire Chiefs Association.Korade, M. The significance of the task force's work cannot be underscored. (May 23, 1999). Online: [http://www.ccnet.com/~suntzu75/stn/1999/stn99 5.htm].Topousis, T. In1998, the force issued about 1,3 citations, down by about 51 in 1997.Also in 1998, it closed 72 clubs, eight fewer than 1997, which demonstratesthat the force is being effective. Moreover, Chesley's method ofpursuing the case has provided the roadmap for other major cases, includingthe national tobacco settlement, several airplane crashes, breast implantlitigation and the Union Carbide chemical leak in Bhopal, India (Horn,1999).Happy Land Fire, New York, NY (199 ) In 199 , Julio González decided to teach his girlfriend a lesson bysetting fire to the Happy Land Social Club in Bronx, New York, where hisgirlfriend was entertaining herself that night. The Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire made an impact on structuralfire safety regulations throughout the country (Robertson, 1989, p. The Supper Club had faulty wiring, andat 8:3 p.m. (1999). Many died from smoke inhalation while others were caughtinside the Cabaret Room until intense flames burned flesh from bones andmelted bodies together (Long & Fisher, 1997). (Dec 9, 1997). Others rantoward a door in the cocktail lounge, which opened inward and was quicklyforced shut by the surging mass of frenzied patrons. Gonzalez was eventually convicted in thesummer of 1991 on 174 counts of murder, two counts for each of his 87victims. What Gonzalez ending updoing was murdering 87 people with a dollar's worth of gasoline and a bookof matches (Rongstad, 1999). The Supper Club fire spurred new demands for improved firesafety measures, including inspection movements (Robertson, 1989, p. "The Century Project: Cocoanut Grove Fire." The Boston Herald. Eventually, the temperature in the Cabaret Room would hit2, degrees. Over the next several months, three more people would diefrom their injuries, bringing the death toll to 165, making it the worstfire disaster in United States history since the Cocoanut Grove nightclubfire (Long & Fisher, 1997). Stan Chesley, theCincinnati lawyer who eventually won $5 million in settlements for thevictims, was one of the attorneys who believed that faulty wiring smolderedbefore flames burst out (Fisher, 1997a). 8). (1959). Furthermore, investigators also discovered thatescaping toxic gas from a leaky air conditioning system fueled the fire.The resulting thick, noxious smoke killed quickly and efficiently; somevictims were found sitting in chairs slumped over tables, unable to evenattempt an escape. Chesley's theory was to share the costs and the riskswith the other plaintiffs in the hope that together they could win a muchbigger settlement (Horn, 1999). They rushed the stairsand jammed the revolving door, which was locked (Burke, 1999). Furthermore, DanMargulies, executive director of the Community Housing Improvement Program,a landlord group, responded that "We don't believe that sprinklers are amagic bullet or that codes should be haphazardly amended based on theheadlines" (Hardt, 2 ). Violations noted by the force haveincluded such serious offenses as locked fire exits, missing emergencylighting and overcrowding, all of which make for dangerous conditions in afire (Korade, 1999). However, while hundreds rose and weredirected by club employees toward three small exits, others stayed wherethey were because they thought the announcement was part of the act(Fisher, 1997a). The Idea Banknotes that research shows that people need a strong sense of hierarchy in afire emergency; visitors tend to look for and respond to leadership fromthe staff and management. First, the National FireProtection Association (NFPA) found several major code violations,including inadequate exits and improper construction materials. (1989). The kitchens and storeroom were toward the back of thebasement and thin plywood had been put up throughout the club to cover theold concrete walls and unused windows. Consequently, they will not use escape routesthat are unfamiliar to them, and the staff must ensure that secondary exitsare clearly posted and utilized in an emergency (Idea Bank, 2 ). "Faulty Wiring Focus of Blame." The Cincinnati Post. In addition, many deaths are caused byinaction, denial and fear of appearing foolish (Idea Bank, 2 ).Generally, the early stages of a public assembly fire are characterized byambiguity, and are often misinterpreted by the public. htm].DiBacco, T. Also, the nightclub didn't have sprinklers.Long & Fisher (1997) note that after 1977, all public-assembly buildingsholding 3 or more people were required to have automatic sprinklers.Finally, the victims' attorneys argued that old-technology aluminum wiringoverheated in the Zebra Room and caused the fire. In particular, the UFC offers sample ordinances in all areas of firesafety, including guidelines for building construction and wiring andstorage of hazardous materials. (May 24, 1997b). Fire safety experts learned several importantlessons from the tragedy. A light set a curtain onfire and because there was insufficient planning for egress in case of afire, human logjams and inadequate venting caused the death of 6 3 people.The Iroquois Theater fire, however, did provide substantial impetus to thefire prevention movement, especially in the field of public assemblyoccupancies (Robertson, 1989, p. In 1928, Alexander Fleming almost accidentally discovered a moldhe dubbed "penicillin" and in 1929 he published his first paper on hisdiscovery (DiBacco, 1997, p. "Toxic Materials Added To The Toll." The Cincinnati Post. In particular, the loss from the fire led to thecreation and enforcement of tough new nationwide fire codes (Burke, 1999).In particular, immediate steps were taken to provide for emergency lightingand occupant capacity placards (Robertson, 1989, p. Nonetheless, within seconds, the nightclub was filled with flames(Burke, 1999). However, in response to South Park Tower'ssurvivors' request that the City Council pass the bill, Mayor RudolphGiuliani stated that "high-rise residents should have known to stay intheir apartments instead of fleeing" (Hardt, 2 ). It isnow promulgated by the International Fire Code Institute (IFCI). As a result of the Happy Land fire, New York City formedthe Social Club Task force, which is responsible for inspecting andinvestigating legal and illegal social clubs throughout New York City. In addition, each of New York City's fire enginecompanies has a "first responder" emergency medical technician on duty,which allows the technician to work on the injured as they are beingremoved from the fire (Topousis). That is, in rooms that did not have doorsdirectly leading outside. On theground floor, in the Zebra Room at the front of the club, a weddingreception was breaking up early (Long & Fisher, 1997). Nonetheless, Long & Fisher note that it would take less than anhour before the full extent of the horror was apparent to the Supper Club'spatrons that night. "Mass Murder in New York City, 87 dead." Sun Tzu's Newswire. Rather, medicalprofessionals had treated burns as local injuries that only involved theparts of the body that were visibly affected (Benzaquin, 1959, p. 113).However, treating the Cocoanut Grove victims allowed doctors to prove thatwithout sufficient infusions of blood or plasma after a severe burn, thevictim will go into shock and die (Benzaquin, 1959, p. The sheer mass of people injured during the Cocoanut Grove fire alsoled to advancements in the treatment of burn victims. "Governor's Outrage Led to New Oversight." The Cincinnati Post. 231). (May 24, 1997a). Online: [http://www.nypost.com/archives/]. ByMarch 1945, penicillin supplies were ample and made enormous inroads in thetreatment of infections and gonorrhea, syphilis, pneumonia and numerousother diseases. The plaintiffs eventually won nearly$5 million in settlements from the building owners, product makers andothers. Nonetheless, all agree that the club's failure to providesufficient emergency exits was primarily responsible for the massive lossof life (Burke, 1999). 9). The Cocoanut Grove fire also advanced the knowledge of burn treatmentin other ways. (1997). New York: Macmillan Publishing Company.Rongstad, R. Unfortunately, however, New York City has reduced the funding andmanpower allotted to the Social Club Task Force since its inception afterthe Happy Land fire. However, once the task force leaves, they revert to theirillegal activities. In his book Holocaust!, Benzaquin seems to support thetheory that the busboy may have inadvertently set a palm frond afire (1959,p. Rongstadnotes that Happy Land was just one of more than a thousand such clubsoperating in New York City, often without a liquor license, and frequentlyshut down for license and building code violations then quickly re-opening(Rongstad, 1999). For example, until shortly before the fire, most medicalprofessionals did not consider the significance of the fact that when theskin is destroyed, the body's fluids will leak out. iii). "Fire Survivors Sob: Require Sprinklers." New York Post. The fire at the Beverly Hills Supper Club underscores the need for aprecise egress plan, the enforcement of such plans by the management andthe inspection of such plans by the municipal government. The Social Club Task Force divides into two teams that scan New YorkCity every night between 1 p.m. Upstairs, a revolving door led tothe dance room. While attorney Stan Chesley's approach to the casehas been criticized for years, there is little doubt that it changed theway major lawsuits are litigated in America (Fisher, 1997a). These numbersdemonstrate that despite all the lessons learned from public assembly firessuch as those discussed in this paper, these lessons are not being appliedand enforced when they are most needed. Online: [http://www.theideabank.com/wfbk21.html].International Fire Code Institute. (May 24, 1997b). Today, it stillranks as one of Boston's worst disasters and one of its greatest mysteries.The precise cause of the fire has never been determined. Thereafter, it wasrun as the Cocoanut Grove Lounge, with the smaller, more exclusive MelodyLounge downstairs. In particular, he argues that products haveimproved because plaintiffs have demanded that tragedies such as BeverlyHills not be repeated (Fisher, 1997a). Thus, when the crowd inside the Cocoanut Grove realized the buildingwas on fire, they in effect became a panicked mob. But to make it worse, the survivors would learn thatall of the deaths could have been prevented (Long & Fisher, 1997).Lessons Learned Following the Supper Club fire, then-Kentucky governor Julian Carrollcommissioned an independent report to determine whether anyone wasnegligent (Fisher, 1997b). In particular, the paper surveys those fires that have causedsignificant loss of life, namely the Cocoanut Grove Lounge fire in Boston,Massachusetts, the Beverly Hills Supper Club fire in Southgate, Kentucky,and the Happy Land Fire in Bronx, New York.Cocoanut Grove Club, Boston (1942) For twelve minutes on the night of November 28, 1942, fire torethrough the Cocoanut Grove nightclub in the Bay Village section of Boston.When firefighters finally finished dousing what remained of the club, theycounted 492 people dead among the smoldering ruins. For example, in New York City, older apartmentbuildings are not required to retrofit for sprinkler systems. Online: [http://www.cincypost.com/bhwire 52497.html].Fisher, J. Online: [http://www.bostonherald.com/bostonherald/centurycocoanutgrove1 271999. The Cocoanut Grove club was initially built as a garage. In particular, mostpeople become disoriented and tend to disbelieve that they are actually ina fire (Idea Bank, 2 ). New York: Henry Holt & Company.Burke, B. 9). Of thetwo, the Task Force leader notes that illegitimate clubs are more difficultto control because they usually only operate at night, but with the chairsout of the way, as cabarets. He jumped on stage to announce "a smallfire" and asked people to leave. Chesley sued the makers of the club's seat cushionsand 1,13 other defendants in what became the largest civil case inKentucky history. "There's Mold in Them There Pills: Penicillin Is a Product of Luck and a Lot of Hard Science." The Washington Post: Z1 .Fisher, J. Still others were burned beyond recognition (Burke,1999).Lessons Learned The Cocoanut Grove fire prompted major efforts in the field of fireprevention and control for nightclubs and other related places of assembly(Robertson, 1989, p. As the review of the fires and their impact onsocial and governmental action details, the advancement of our knowledge offire prevention and safety has often come at the cost of great loss of lifethrough fire tragedies. "Supper Club Fire Catapulted Chesley: Local attorney Led Way on Mass Injury Cases." The Cincinnati Enquirer. Inparticular, he stated that the safer clothing worn by firefighters reducestheir susceptibility to burns while allowing them to venture further intothe fire to combat it. In 1985, after an 11-week civiltrial, a federal jury agreed. However,during the Prohibition era, Charles "King" Solomon, a local gangster, usedthe space as a speakeasy (Benzaquin, 1959, p. However, the first major domestic use ofpenicillin was not until the Cocoanut Grove fire, when it was used toprevent infections among the survivors. Currently, the task force argues that they havedifficulty monitoring the social clubs because they lack the necessarymanpower. Online: [http://www.cincypost.com/bhgov 52497.html].Hardt, R. Of the 162 peoplewho died that night as a result of the fire, 16 had been in the CabaretRoom. If they are detected, they merely pay the finefor non-compliance and arrange the club to meet the task force'srequirements. Next to the revolving door was an ordinary swing door,which for some reason, was always kept locked (Burke, 1999). Online: [http://cincypost.com/bhfire/bhmain/ 52497.html].Robertson, J. This paper surveys several fires thathave occurred in public assembly occupancies since these earlier fires toreview the social, economic and political impact each has had on oursociety. (May 24, 1997). Significantly, the report, issued in September1977, stated that the state fire marshal's office did not have a properinspection program for code violations. Initially, the force consisted of 2 fire marshals, policeofficers and building inspectors, and closed nearly 3 illegal nightspotsin the first year after Happy Land. Unfortunately, the tragedy of the Brooklyn Theaterfire was followed by a fire in the Iroquois Theater in 19 3, which wasconsidered Chicago's safest theater at the time. On the night of November 28, the club was packed. However, New York's City decrease actually bucks the national trend.Nationally, 4,9 people died because of fire in 1996, a number that isabout 1 percent higher than 1995 numbers and the second year in a row thatthe number of fire fatalities increased (Topousis, 1997). 8). iii). Needlessto say, the Cocoanut Grove had no such exits and no such plan. The Beverly Hills Supper Club shared several fatal features with theCocoanut Grove thirty-five years earlier despite the promulgation of suchguidelines as the Uniform Fire Code. The task force now believes that the City's failure tosupport the force means that another Happy Land tragedy is distinctlypossible.Conclusion Despite the reduction in the budget allotted to the Social Club TaskForce, deaths by fires have been reduced in New York City over the last fewyears. 36-37). A few days after the tragedy at the Happy Land Social Club, then-MayorDavid Dinkins noted that the Happy Land Fire took place exactly on the 79thanniversary of the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire on March 25, 1911(Rongstad, 1999). Z1 ). However, such requirements are only effective if they are implementedand enforced. "On the Trail of Illegal Social Clubs." Columbia Journalism Review. Online: [http://enquirer.com/editions/1999/ 3/24/loc_supper_club_fire.html]."Human Behavior in Public Assembly Fires." The Idea Bank. In addition, the Western Fire Chiefs Association (WFCA) and theInternational Conference of Building Officials (ICBO) promulgated theUniform Fire Code in 1971, which is the United States' premier model firecode (UFC, 1997, p. For his efforts, Fleming along with three other colleagueswas awarded the Nobel Prize for Medicine in 1945 (DiBacco, 1997, p. Chesley states that today seat cushions are more flame-retardantwhile other products, such as the old-technology aluminum wiring, have beenbanned (Fisher, 1997a). In the Beverly Hills Supper Club fire, it was ateenage busboy who finally realized that the patrons in the Cabaret Roomwere not responding to the fire. Chesley becameinvolved after a man who was injured in the blaze came to him for help.However, instead of lining up behind the hundreds of other personal injurylawyers hoping for a small piece of a settlement, Chesley filed the firstlawsuit in the case and promptly tried to consolidate the case with theother plaintiffs. ReferencesBenzaquin, P. In essence, he wouldargue that everything from faulty wiring to poor construction led to thedisaster (Horn, 1999). Thus, in 1942, theCocoanut Grove fire became the worst building fire in United States historywhen based on sheer loss of life (Benzaquin, 1959, p. Entertainment Facility Fires On December 5, 1876, a major fire occurred in the Brooklyn Theater inNew York when a stage backdrop ignited and 295 people were killed(Robertson, 1989, p. In particular, the NFPA noted the "acute"lack of exits in the Cabaret Room, where most of the victims were found.Today, all municipalities require a specific number of exits in allbuildings, as demonstrated by the Uniform Fire Code. In the South Park Tower fire inthe Upper West Side in particular, four residents of an apartment buildingdied in a fire because the building was not fitted with a sprinkler system.Residents of the building also note that it does not possess an intercom, afire alarm, a fire extinguisher, a sprinkler system, or clearly marked fireexits (Hardt, 2 ). As it relates to places of assembly,Article 25 of the Code requires permits to operate a place of assembly (§25 1.3) and supervision and communication systems with the fire department(§ 25 1.4). According to the Task Force, an illegal social clubcan be either a legitimate club, bar or restaurant that breaks the law byserving alcohol and providing dancing after hours, or it can be anillegitimate un-inspected, un-licensed speakeasy (Korade, 1999). These"innovations" that lent the Lounge its air of mystery would prove fatal tomost of its patrons on the night of November 28, 1942. "Fire Deaths in City Plunge to Lowest Level Since 1959." New York Post. Elsewhere in the building, the Savings & Loan League ofSouthwestern Ohio & Northern Kentucky was holding an awards banquet. (Wednesday, October 27, 1999). Consequently,in December 1999, New York City suffered the deaths of four civilians andthree firefighters in two separate fires. One of the reasons for theincreasing numbers of death by fires can be attributed to fires in olderbuildings that do not meet the codes that have been promulgated since theCocoanut Grove fire in 1942. In New York City,the task force currently checks an average of 2 locations a night. Itfocused attention on the need for fire safety measures and the safeguardingof occupants in similar buildings.Lessons Learned The Happy Land Social Club fire demonstrated the need for keepingtrack of illegal social clubs throughout all the nation's cities. Z1 ). Witnesses claimedthat as many as 1, people may have been packed into the Cocoanut Groveafter the Boston College football team lost its game that night (Burke,1999). Under New York law at the time,González faced a maximum sentence of 25 years to life (Rongstad, 1999). The Wednesday after the fire, the bodies of two women who had beentrapped in a makeshift dressing room were discovered upstairs (Long &Fisher, 1997). Online: [http://www.nypost.com/archives/]. Online: [http://www.cincypost.com/bhprod 52497.html].Fisher, J. The IFCInotes that the model code provides jurisdictions with an opportunity toadopt a comprehensive, up-to-date fire code that is consistent with otherjurisdictions. (UFC, 1997, p. The Supper Club fire also echoed the Cocoanut Grove fire in thatsufficient egress in the case of a fire was not provided for in rooms thatwere entirely inside the club. The report also criticized theclub's owners for using faulty materials in expanding the facility.Consequently, Carroll forced the state fire marshal to step aside andcreated the Kentucky Department of Housing, Building and Construction tooversee major projects (Fisher, 1997b). In that earlier tragedy, a total of 146 people, mostlywomen and mostly Jewish and Italian immigrants perished (Rongstad, 1999).The victims were unable to exit the building during the fire because thecompany had a practice of locking all exit doors when they checked theemployees' purses and bags to ensure they were not stealing companyproperty. Fortunately, the task force also notes that manyillegal social clubs are not large enough to reach Happy Land's 4 - or 5 -person capacity (Korade, 1999). Hadthe city of Southgate, Kentucky had such a force, the tragedy of theBeverly Hills Supper Club fire would have been prevented. (March 13, 2 ). He confessed to setting the fire on March 25, 199 , which killedthe 87 Latin American men and women, mostly Hondurans, although he pleadedinsanity as an affirmative defense. (May 17, 1999). Exit lights werealso required as a result of this fire. Consequently, it is very important that places ofpublic assembly prepare a specific egress plan in such cases. However, then-Mayor David Dinkins cutthe force nearly in half and under Mayor Rudolph Giuliani it has dwindledto 21 marshals with no police officers (Korade, 1999). In that year, the city spent $3.6million on the force (Korade, 1999). Fortunately, society has learned a lot from suchtragedies. The Idea Bank notesthat in a restaurant, for example, many patrons will not feel threatened bysmoke because they often assume that it is coming from the kitchen. In addition, experts who have studied the Beverly Hills Supper Clubfire have noted a fatal combination of problems. Burke notes thatnearly a quarter of the patrons who died in the fire were found behind thisdoor (Burke, 1999). Online: [http://bronx-beat.jrn.columbia.edu/99- issues/may/may17/clubs.htmlLong, P. The Supper Club fire also has a significant impact on the way personalinjury claims are litigated for injuries to large numbers of people whilein a place of assembly.
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