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ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR.
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Examines the importance of understanding organizational behavior and theories.... More...
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Paper Abstract:
Examines the importance of understanding organizational behavior and theories. Importance to managers and productivity of an organization. How to motivate employees. Classical approaches to organizational behavior. Scientific Management, Human Relations, Contingency Approach, Frame Approach, Motivational Approach. Characteristics of the organizational climate. How theories can be applied to an educational institution.
Paper Introduction:
Introduction
Organizational behavior can be defined as the systematic study of the behavior and attitudes of both individuals and groups within organizations (DuBrin, 1984, p. 14). Understanding how individuals and groups within organizations act and react with each other in everyday situations can be key to helping managers become more effective both in directing their own activities, the activities of their subordinates, and in working with others within the organization.
There is no one approach to organizational behavior that is optimum for all environments. Work environments are dynamic, and the employees within those environments change from generation to generation. Organizational culture, education of managers and employees, and the environment of the surrounding culture are all variables that affect the
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38-39. Give me a Montessori school.School and College, pp. Inaddition, Taylor felt that management was entitled to substantial profitsbecause it was management that took the responsibility and absorbed thecosts of designing new production techniques. Administrators serve as managers of employees, consisting ofteachers and support staff. Introduction to Organizational Behavior. R. Motivating students can be particularly challenging since theydo not receive payment for performance (at least payment is not provided bythe schools) and nonmonetary rewards are the only type of rewards availableto educators. 117). There is a belief that ifteachers are better motivated, their students will perform better on exams. The third reason for studying organizational behavior is for theknowledge itself. Taken to the extreme, the scientific management approach findsthat there is a single best way to solve a given situation (Klein,Dansereau & Hall, April 1994, p. Thus, the structural frame of Bolmanand Deal has considerable application to the educational environment interms of describing that environment, but limited application in terms ofoffering ways to change the educational environment. (Spring 1994). In other situations, educators who areable to participate in national organizations that bring attention andprestige to the district find that their personal success results inreflected success for their school. The approach was largely based on a series of studies conductedat the Hawthorne plant of the Western Electric Company, located in thesuburbs of Chicago. These theoretical models assume that individuals makerational decisions based on economic realities. Organizational culture can thus be described as the philosophies,norms, values and rules observed within an institution (Luthans, 1992, p.563). The principal has power conferred on him or her by theposition, where teachers have far less power, and that power may be basedon their length of service rather than overall effectiveness. Management is also affected by these rules. Other variables thatmight influence the results but that are not of immediate interest to theresearcher are either controlled or eliminated through the careful designof the study. The school may have apolicy condemning chronic tardiness, but disgruntled employees may use suchbehavior to rebel against the use of tenure, layoffs or other perceivedinjustices. In this case, the organizational culture will be in conflictwith the administration's goals until such time as a resolution can bereached. Adherents of this approach searched for the "onebest way" to perform a specific task, and introduced standard parts andprocedures. Wheatley, M. This theory holds that the factors that contribute tojob satisfaction are different from the factors that contribute to jobdissatisfaction. Theory Z. The human resource approach has recently gained popularity asteachers' organizations have sought pay raises and improved conditions forteachers and educators ("Arizona," 2 1). Ouchi, W. E. Vecchio, R. Key to an understanding of organizational behavior is an appreciationof organizational culture. NewYork: HarperCollins. Based on theseassumptions, researchers are able to use the scientific method to examineorganizational behavior. The human relations approach has significant application in aneducational environment. Strategiesthat may have been effective in the twentieth century, for example, are notnecessarily effective now, and strategies which work in one institution maynot be transplanted in whole to another and be as effective. Organizational Behavior & Human DecisionProcesses, pp. These are social needs,and include the need for affection, love and sexual expression. 193-2 4. Positive correlation is noted when an increase in one variableleads to an increase in the other; negative correlation is noted when apositive increase in one variable leads to a decrease in another. Correlationalresearch is concerned with the relationship between two variables, andwhether changes in one variable are associated with changes in anothervariable. Chicago: TheDryden Press. Most often, correlation analysis is used in conjunction with theexperimental method in order to determine a causal relationship between twoor more variables. The hierarchical ordering in terms of potency (prepotency)means that a deficiency in a lower-order need can supersede a higher-orderneed (DuBrin, 1984). Because teachers are given considerable latitude about the personalinteraction they have with their classes, and because their workdayinvolves significant isolation from other teachers and managers (relativeto the interaction among employees in a non-educational setting), teachersmay exhibit considerable independence in their attitude toward managementand other teachers. This approach issignificant in that it suggests that the issues that lead to satisfactionand dissatisfaction are not the same (Lu, 1988). The growth needs begin with the need for esteem, including self-respect and the esteem of others. A different study at the Hawthorne plant illustrated that althoughworkers were paid according to their output, there was an informal processin place that sought to control that output. On theory, statistics andthe search for interactions in the social sciences. Failure to eliminate or control these variables can resultin a study that is of questionable worth to those in the organizationalbehavior field (Sagie & Koslowsky, January 1994, p. Instinctual views gainedacceptance to the point that the number of proposed instincts were toonumerous to render the theory applicable to real-world situation. Safety needs relate to obtaining a secure environment in whichan individual is free from threats. Subordinate influence and the performance evaluationprocess. Conclusion Understanding how individuals behave within organizations is importantto managers seeking to improve their own productivity and the productivityof their subordinates. Informal social groups, management-employeerelations, and the interrelationships among the many different parts of thework environment were found to be influential on workers (Steers, 1991, p.12 ). Althoughsome districts are experimenting with nontraditional and nonhierarchicalschool structures (including team teaching and other techniques), theeducational environment continues to be one in which formal structure and apyramid hierarchy remains prominent. Philosophical differences can be among the mostdifficult to resolve because they are not associated with specificbehavior, but rather with the way in which each group approaches work, andthe role that work is given in their everyday lives. The Importance of Understanding Organizational Behavior Understanding organizational behavior and the theories behind suchunderstanding offers practical applications to both administrators,educators and support staff. New York: John Wiley & Sons. This is a ritual within that organization thatleaders must recognize and understand before they can bring about change. Other factors being equal,organizations that have talented and dedicated employees are likely to bemore effective than those that do not. However, there arevestiges of scientific management remaining in the workplace, and theeducational environment uses them, as well. Such training is not limited to teachers, butcan be offered to support staff, as well, and focuses not only on classroomtechniques, but on ways to improve working relationships with the variousstakeholders of a school and ways to improve morale among employees of aninstitution. M. The profession is notoriously low-paying, and the challengesassociated with teaching (including the threat of violence) can be high.Educators tend, as a result, to be highly motivated by non-monetaryrewards, although they do seek equitable pay. Steers, R. The political frame is thusparticularly appropriate to the educational setting. Negotiation and bargaining are the techniques used to bringthese needs into line with one another and to offer "win-win" situations.Solutions arise not from the rules and regulations that the formalstructure of the organization provides, but from the political skill andexpertise of the individual manager. Scientific management lost favor in the twentieth century because of ashift away from manufacturing and toward the service industries. Advocates of this approach hold that individuals makerational choices based on a careful evaluation of costs and benefits.While hedonistic approaches are useful for describing behavior after thefact, it has proven to be vague in terms of predicting behavior, and oflimited practical use. J. (1991). These studies were conducted over 12 years anddemonstrated that in addition to the job itself, certain factors caninfluence workers' behavior. 17. Scientific management has been criticized on a number of differentissues. Unlikethe structural frame, this frame recognizes the informal sources of powerwithin the organization and the "dotted line" relationships that can existamong individuals. After theindustrial revolution, work became centrally located in factories and jobsrequired less skill because machines controlled production processes. For example, a correlation analysis may show that thereis a strong degree of correlation between two variables. 563). The relationship betweeneconomic depressions and employee attitudes, for example, can only bestudied through correlation analysis (since depressions cannot beengineered for research purposes). Introduction Organizational behavior can be defined as the systematic study of thebehavior and attitudes of both individuals and groups within organizations(DuBrin, 1984, p. Luthans describes this as the"feeling" which pervades the organization (1992, p. The need for achievement determines how employees will respond tochallenging job assignments because task persistence and the acceptance ofchallenge are closely related to this need. So long as the structure is appropriate to theorganization, structural frames for situations are also appropriate;however, if there is a significant change in the environment, the structuremust also change if the leaders in that structure are to continue to beeffective. This can lead to errors ininterpretation. M. Every organization has aculture, but the exact rules and regulations differ from one to another.Individuals who work for organizations where they do not fit theorganizational culture are unlikely to remain for long. 37-47. Indeed, assessing teacher effectiveness is a contentious issue eventoday that does not have easy solutions. 22-25. Similar topure sciences, the results gained from organizational behavior studies mayhave ramifications that go beyond what the researchers originally intended. Politicians arebrought into office where they must interact with non-elected officials whohave been in the system longer than the politician, and whose interestsextend beyond the expected tenure of the elected official. DuBrin, A. The study of congruence inorganizational behavior research. Whilecorrelational studies can indicate whether and to what degree two variablesare related, they cannot offer more than a descriptive summary of therelationship. Edwards, J. 195-229. Process theories focus on how rewards control behavior. All of the employees contribute to thatmotivation, including those in support roles, such as the media centeremployees. These five characteristics contribute to the last factor which Luthanscites, that of organizational climate. However, there is an inherent danger in ascribingtoo much importance to the assumption that satisfied workers will be moreproductive than their counterparts who have a low level of job satisfaction(Steers, 1991, p. Journal of Management,pp. Extensive studies have been undertakento determine the various ways in which employees can be motivated, ways inwhich decisions can be made and implemented, and ways in whichcommunication takes place. Individuals with a highneed for affiliation tend to be warm and friendly in their relationships,but may be ineffective if their need for affiliation is not balanced withtheir needs for achievement and power. The iniquity resulted from Taylor's personal belief that greaterrewards would make workers more defiant and difficult to manage. Early twentieth century industrialists took an engineering approach tomanagement called scientific management. Employees must recognize and acknowledge the existing ritualsbefore they can begin to modify those cultural behaviors, whileadministrators can be more direct in their approach. (1992). & Russell, C. There is no one approach to organizational behavior that is optimumfor all environments. These values relate to the level of importance given tospecific items, such as absenteeism and quality. The experimentalmethod can then be used to determine the cause and effect relationship, ifany, between the two variables. 195). Luthans identifies six factors that can befound in organizational cultures: observed behavioral regularities, norms,dominant values, philosophy, rules and the organizational climate (1992, p.563). J. Klein, K. Gordon, G. Both scientific management and human relationscontinue to have their advocates, and outgrowths of these approaches toorganizational behavior can be found today. The Contingency Approach After the Second World War, a new perspective emerged inorganizational behavior. Lower-order needs he termed deficiency needs and must be satisfied tonsure anindividual's very existence and security. 15). Observed behavioral regularities are typified by the language, tasks,jargon and roles that members of the organization use and expect to findwithin the organization. The Thematic Apperception Test was developed by Henry A. This informal processestablished a norm for the group from which individuals were not expectedto deviate significantly. Specific behavior may be the resultof several motives rather than a single motive, and individuals who expressessentially the same motives may engage in very different behavior, whilethose expressing vastly different motives may engage in similar behavior.Increasing the difficulty of identifying effective motivational techniquesis the realization at motives cannot be directly observed, but must beinferred from the behavior of others. Personal development may beexpressed in many different ways, but some individuals may never experiencethe desire to develop their own potential (Keys, 1991). & Koslowsky, M. In fact, electedofficials offer a unique perspective on leadership. Industrial Engineering,pp. Many educators recognizes, for example, that thesuccess of their funding requests may be directly related to the politicalskills of their administrators. Teachers, administrators and support staff within an educationalinstitution work within the confines of the political environment. Expectancy theories attempt to explain worker motivation in terms ofanticipated rewards. Lu, D. J. While thegroup involved did not formally establish the production norm, the informalsetting was well-known. The contingency approach does not seek a single best answer to aparticular situation, but seeks instead to understand all the facets of thesituation and the factors that have led to its development. Despite these complexities, understanding how toeffectively motivate diverse individuals can be key to effectivemanagement. This means that therules and regulations of the organization are critical to the leader'sperceptions and response. The contingency approachdid not abandon the search for principles that could be used to explain orpredict behavior within organizations, but it sought to identify theconditions under which specific relationships are likely to exist.Contingency researchers recognize the interdependency of personal andsituational factors in determining employee behavior (Luthans, 1992). Organizational culture also includes the rules by which workers areexpected to abide. Sagie, A. Since organizational behavior focuses on theindividuals within an organization, understanding the discipline enablesmanagers to attract and develop talented individuals, a criticallyimportant part of most managers' responsibilities. (1981). If employee needs arebeing met, they will be productive and the organization as a whole willbenefit. There is a high rate ofturnover among new teachers who fail to grasp either the personalchallenges of teaching, or the effect that the pay will have on theirdesired standard of living (Schonfeld, 2 ). (1983). Another view of work motivation, developed by Fred Herzberg, is thetwo-factor theory. Asincreasing numbers of workers began to move away from routinized job tasksand toward tasks that required more independent thought, scientificmanagement became less popular as a management style. The contingency approach did not seek to integrate the two approachesthat preceded it, scientific management and human relations. Levelsissues in theory development, data collection and analysis. Indeed, motivating students to learn is the overridingfunction of the school itself. Classical Approaches to Organizational Behavior--Scientific Management Prior to the industrial revolution, work was decentralized with manycraftsmen providing the bulk of finished goods to the market. Dissatisfaction with the organizational climateis one of the main reasons that workers leave their current place ofemployment. At thesimplest level, rules are imposed by management on employees, and relate toattendance, work habits and procedures. McClelland took the story-telling approach further byuncovering three dominant needs: the need for achievement; the need foraffiliation; and the need for power. Educators and administrators who develop their motivational tools willfind that they are successful in the long-term whether with regard tostudents or employees. While teachers support the curriculum and overallobjective of the school, the success of their work cannot be measured bythe number of widgets they produce or even the number of clients theyserve. One significant shortcoming of this approach is that much time andeffort must be put toward developing work standards, closely monitoringmany different aspects of the work process, and calculating appropriaterates of pay. The costs associated with these activities may well offsetthe benefits gained from the activities. The media center is a service centersupporting the educational mission of the school and its curriculum.Support staff have a traditional relationship with management in that theirduties can be clearly identified and defined, and often quantitativemeasures can be used to determine if they are accomplishing their tasksappropriately (for example, is the computer lab available during itsassigned hours, and are the bathrooms kept clean and stocked). There is also the belief that if students are better motivated using someof the techniques described above, their performance will improve, as well. The human relations approach recognizes this and alsorecognizes the importance of the relationships that develop among teacherswho might share the same students, the same frustrations and the samechallenges within the confines of a particular institution, its goals andobjectives. S. There are two major research methods that are employed inorganizational behavior: correlational and experimental. (1991). Industry determinants of organizationalculture. SanFrancisco: Berrett-Koehler Publishers. (1984). Increasingly, organizations are taking the view that employees arepartners in the company's business rather than adversaries. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. & Keys, B. Certainly dynamicadministrators can change the culture of a school quickly through strongleadership, but there are likely to be teachers and other employees "leftbehind" in an environment of such rapid change. The philosophy of anorganization affects every aspect of the performance of the group, and canbe a point of concern when the administration's philosophy differssignificantly from the workers' philosophy. Such knowledge may have immediate benefits as identifiedabove, or the knowledge may have benefits, which stretch farther afield.For example, an understanding of how groups interact can help educationprofessionals better tailor classes to meet specific needs. Deemedthe Hawthorne effect, this phenomenon explains that the mere study ofpeople at work, in and of itself, can be responsible for a particular setof results from that observation. Theorganizational climate is not a concrete item, but describes how theinstitution as a whole views individuals, how the individuals view theorganization, and what sort of atmosphere or environment the organizationis successful in creating. An Updated look at depressivesymptoms and job satisfaction in first-year women teachers. If the standards are average or low, then newcomersare expected to reduce their output, if necessary, in order to keep therest of the group from looking bad. Adherents of the humanrelations approach assumed that workers who are satisfied with their jobswill be indebted to the company and show their appreciation throughincreased productivity. Oncethese needs are met, the second order needs, safety needs, can beaddressed. Schonfeld, I. This approach acknowledged that organizationalbehavior cannot be explained by using the simplistic approaches of eitherthe scientific or the human relations schools. Bobko, P. The standards of behavior, or norms, that an organizational cultureestablishes define how newcomers to the organization are expected toperform. 2 4). Emphasizing the humanelement can provide help increase the effectiveness of those within theorganization, and is key to employee retention. 123). This research examines the importance of understanding organizationalbehavior, classical approaches to organizational behavior, five theoriesassociated with organizational behavior, and the appropriateness of thosetheories to an educational institution. This norm helped all members of the group inthat none of them appeared to be outproducing the others on a regularbasis, and none were considered falling behind in productivity. The highest level set of needs, self-actualization needs,includes the desire for self-fulfillment. In this way,what might be considered a similar situation in two different environments,such as low standardized test scores, might have two entirely differentsolutions when the various factors at each educational institution aretaken into account. Cliqueswere identified by their membership criteria: they did not contain thosewho worked above the group's informal norm; those who worked below the normon a regular basis; nor those who informed on other workers to management(Steers, 1991, p. For these individuals, money is primarily a source of feedback onpersonal performance rather than an end in itself. However, the political frame offers a valuable "real-world"perspective on organizational behavior, and has application within theeducational environment. Teachers are responsible forimparting knowledge to their students, and they have unique relationshipswith each student over the course of a year. Academy of Management Review, pp. This led to the development of the instinctual theory thatwas based on inborn or innate predispositions. The Frame Approach Bolman and Deal identify four "frames" which leaders use to definesituations around them: structural, human resource, political and symbolic(Bolman & Deal, 1991, p. E.(April 1994). Work environments are dynamic, and the employeeswithin those environments change from generation to generation.Organizational culture, education of managers and employees, and theenvironment of the surrounding culture are all variables that affect thetype of organizational behavior seen in any particular group. P. (April 1994). At the end of the study, the workers wagesincreased from $1.15 per day to $1.85, a 61 percent increase. One of the first attempts at developing a motivational theory focusedon the principle of hedonism, which finds that people will seek pleasureand avoid pain. Organizational Behavior & Human Decision Processes, pp. (2 , September). SchoolLibrary Journal, p. Instead, they willleave in search of an environment where their personal values andcharacteristics are more in synchronization with the organizationalculture. In this way, the human relations approach can be an effectivetool when considering educational institutions. Thesetheories are concerned with the dynamics, or process aspects, of workmotivation (Gordon, 1991). Academy ofManagement Review, pp. Another problem that arises withscientific management is that there may be strong work resistance toattempts by management to measure effort and productivity. 68). Ferris, G. Management and OrganizationalBehavior. Organizational Behavior. Employees in themedia center typically have college educations, and student volunteers areencouraged to exercise their creativity and creative problem solvingprocesses. (April 1991). (2 1, June). If a person is reasonably safe andsecure, the third set of needs can be considered. A., Rowland, K. Leadership and the new science. Abraham Maslow developed a more complete view of individualmotivation, also based on needs, at approximately the same time that Murrayand McClelland were formulating their views. Organizational attitudesand behaviors as a function of participation in strategic and tacticalchange decisions. 25). New York: McGraw-Hill,Inc. Murray created a test forestablishing the presence and strength of various personal needs.Specifically, he used a set of drawings from magazines that, when subjectsdescribed them, could be used to highlight the needs that were dominant inthe subjects. In addition to the very real practical applications of organizationalbehavior, there are personal growth reasons that can be called into play,as well. Herzberg held that the absence of motivator factors wouldnot make employees unhappy, but would leave them feeling neutral abouttheir jobs. Organization charts may be used by the leader toeither identify or confirm his leadership position, and the authority ofthe leader may well depend on his position within the formal structure ofthe organization. Instead, itreplaced them as providing a dominant perspective for the study oforganizational behavior. Thus, employees hear ofthe "IBM Way," or a legendary principal with whom myths regardingperformance are associated. Organizational behavior. Esteem needs include the desire forachievement, prestige and recognition as well as appreciation and attentionfrom others. However, the approach thatwas taken provided strong support to some workers' contention that managers(who increased in substantial numbers following the industrial revolution)were out to maximize their own gains while minimizing the gains thataccrued to workers (Scanlan & Keys, 1983, p. In some cases, the organization may encourage the worker to findother employment because the disparities between the organizational cultureand the employee's own frame of reference are too great for the employee toovercome. As withhedonistic approaches, the instinctual approach is best used to describeactions after they occur rather than as predictors of specific behavior(Vecchio, 1991). The human resource frame is based on the work of social psychologistsand on the idea that organizations are composed of individuals with uniqueneeds and feelings as well as abilities and bias. The 199 s in particular saw anincrease in the number of training days that educators receive over thecourse of the school year. In the experimental method, aresearcher manipulates the independent variable in the hope of observingcorresponding changes in the dependent variable. Through the use of these frames, it ispossible to view the same situation in entirely different ways, with theresult that the leadership approach will vary depending on which frame isselected. In an educational organization, political frames enable managers toview conflict as the result of differing needs and perspectives amongemployees. Theabsence of friends or loved ones can lead to serious maladjustment ofindividuals and prevent the individual from meeting higher-order needs. Similarly, addressing hygiene factors would result in littlemore than neutral feelings from employees, while failing to meet hygienefactors would result in strong dissatisfaction. Montessori, for example, developed a highlyprofitable private educational system based on its philosophy, and theorganizational of educators and others in a Montessori system can be quiterestrictive (Sundre, 1994). Teachers, however, have a much different relationship to theadministration. Just as in a larger societal culture, anorganization's culture supports certain language and behaviors from itsmembers. R., Judge, T. Although individual teacherstypically have unique teaching styles (facilitative, domineering), manydifferent styles, combined with the teacher's unique personality, can beeffective. Positive outcomes tochanges in the work environment were partly attributed to the attention andrecognition that workers received by participating in the studies. J. These are not necessarily written down, but the individuals withinthe organization codify the culture nonetheless. 1 1-135. While thesituation at the beginning of the twentieth century was that employees wereheld to be largely unmotivated and seeking to accomplish as little work aspossible while making the most amount of money, that view has changed towhere employees are seen as valuable resources within an organization whosatisfy more than mere economic need with their employment. Foundations of Organizational Behavior.Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. There are a number of different approaches to work motivation, most ofwhich can be broken down into either content theories or process theories.Content theories focus on what motivates people to perform, and areconcerned with identifying the different rewards that people seek in theirwork. Initially, most teachersare highly motivated to become educators because of the personal rewardsthey receive. 39). Perhaps the most important outgrowth of the Hawthorne studies was therecognition that there is a social aspect to work. Correlational studies may also providea productive first step in analyzing certain events as a foundation foradditional study. In addition,officials may appoint or bring in individuals with whom they arecomfortable and whose judgment they trust, with the result that there maybe considerable conflict among an official's advisors. Luthans, F. Human Relations Approach The human relations approach gained popularity at the same time thatscientific management was also in wide use. Maslow's deficiency needs are identified as physiological needs,including the need for food, water, sleep and freedom from pain. The organizational culture also includes the dominant values of thegroup as a whole. The endless recycling of goodness. Where the scientific management approach would seek toimprove the ergonomics of the situations and provide additional supportmaterial, and the human relations approach would seek to enhance the moraleof the teachers and the self-esteem of the students, the contingencyapproach would take these and other factors into account (such as theeconomic environment) and create solutions specifically tailored to thatinstitution at that time. To some degree, the human resource frame demands that leadersconsider their actions primarily from a motivational standpoint. By understanding others, individuals may experience greater self-knowledge and self-insight. J. Most schools, for example,follow an educational philosophy that, while the specific philosophy maydiffer from school to school, follows the tradition that there is a singlebest way to educate children. In some organizations, meetings demand flipcharts and overhead projections, with the resultant "action items"transcribed onto paper to be inserted into organizers at a later time(Wheatley, 1994, p. Five critical barriers to successfulimplementation of JIT and total quality control. M., & Fitzgibbons, D. These theories have gainedmuch attention because they stem from the idea that personal andsituational influences are important in employee motivation. As research continues in this area, organizations are likely tomodify their current assumptions and approaches in order to be moreeffective, leading to additional research in the field. (April 1994). New teachers in particular can have a difficult time identifying therites and ceremonies associated with a particular school, while teacherswho transfer from other schools may know some of the culture fromreputation. 123). Within the confines of a media center, there are certainly routinizedtasks that can be accomplished using a "one best method" approach.Materials have to be catalogued and filed when they are received into thesystem, and tracked as to their use by students and educators. In addition to a workplace's objective features, such as illuminationand interior design, the Hawthorne studies resulted in increased attentionto the psychological aspects of the work environment. This, in turn, offers benefitsboth to the individual and the organization. Factors that led to satisfaction were termed motivatorfactors, while factors that contributed to dissatisfaction were deemedhygiene factors. Across theBoard, pp. The practical value of this may not beinitially evident; however, while entry-level positions can be based ontechnical competency and meeting minimum educational requirements,promotions are often based on the individual's ability to lead others, towork with others and on interpersonal skills in general. The rules of an institution, whichare typically imposed by the district and subject to only small localvariation, help set the organizational culture in the amount of freedomthey give to individual employees, and the roles that the rules set upbetween workers and managers. Inone well-publicized example, workers' fears were found to be well-grounded. Journal ofOccupational and Organizational Psychology, pp. Journal of Organizational Behavior, pp. One of themost widely cited versions of expectancy theory is the Vroom model, whichholds that the psychological force on an employee to exert effort is afunction of his expectancies of the future, and the attractiveness offuture outcomes (Scanlan & Keys, 1983). The same is true for motivating teachers. When administrators come to an educational institution frombusiness, this can require a significant change in the way that theyapproach their jobs. However, there has also been increased scrutiny of theeducation profession by those outside the educational environment asincreased attention has been given to standardized test performance.Increasngly, teachers are being held accountable (although that term is ill-defined in the educational setting) for the performance of their students,a trend that can be challenging for teachers if appropriate training andsupport is not forthcoming. At the same time, motives are dynamic, not static, andsome motives do not decrease in importance when a desired goal is obtained(pay raises offer a prime example of this) (Ferris, Judge, Rowland &Fitzgibbons, 1994). (January 1994). Certainly, the structural frame is applicable to the educationalenvironment. High achievers are driven bythe prospect of performance-based satisfaction rather than by monetarygain. On the one hand,there are the public employees who are familiar with the environmentbecause they have been a part of it for some time, but there are also theofficial's own aides, who may be new to the situation but who have therespect and trust of the official. Atthe same time, production increased sharply and some analysts (includingAdam Smith) noted that simplifying work processes beyond some point mightresult in diminishing returns and feelings of alienation among workers. The Hawthorne studies also noted that a social order existed withinwork units based on clique membership rather than on job function. Murray as anoutgrowth of his research on instinct theory. 363-375. However, these individuals must also recognize thatsuccessful motivation is based on the particulars of the environment at anypoint in time, and that motivational tools must be modified according tochanges that may be taking place in the environment. Scanlan, B. Sundre, S. When correlation analysis is used, however, it isimportant to refrain from inferring causality (Ferris, Judge, Rowland &Fitzgibbons, April 1994, p. This is similar to theclassical human resource approach to organizational behavior. Freud and others focused on the role of unconscious motivation forhuman behavior. While consulting at Bethlehem Steel, Taylor designed a new pay system andwork approach for a specific worker that included more breaks and increasedpay for increased productivity. Those who performed above the level were subjectto various types of behavior designed to curb the excess production, thoughalways in an informal manner. Those individuals who are deemed"political" are also often considered manipulative and, to some degree,more underhanded than those individuals who are not viewed as being equallypolitical. (1994, September). Understanding how individuals and groups withinorganizations act and react with each other in everyday situations can bekey to helping managers become more effective both in directing their ownactivities, the activities of their subordinates, and in working withothers within the organization. Higher-order needs, growthneeds, are concerned with personal development and the realization of one'spotential. 14). So long as the functions are being performed correctly andwithout undue delay, applying a scientific management approach to the mediacenter seems ill-advised. The political frame views all organizations as arenas in which variousinterest groups compete for power and resources. The humanresource frame gives leaders a way of looking at the organization thatemphasizes the health and well-being of employees. G. The result is a wide variety of theories thatseek to explain and predict how individuals and organizations will behavein certain situations. (1994). The experimental method is generally the preferred method forundertaking cause and effect relationships. Bolman and Deal's fourth frame is the symbolic frame, which is basedon social and cultural anthropology. In this way,increasing one's ability to work with others through a better understandingof how people work with each other in different types of situations canhelp an individual become more effective. 57-6 . The motivational approach has gained popularity in educationalsettings in recent years as educators, administrators and members of thepublic seek to improve the educational system. In order toachieve that increase, however, the worker's productivity increased 28 percent. To some degree, the humanrelations approach grew out of the emerging field of psychology, andemphasized the importance of motivation and attitudes in explaining workerbehavior. Keys, D. 34). The Motivational Approach The motivational approach to organizational behavior holds that allbehavior can be modulated through motivation (Luthans, 1992).Understanding how to motivate people is a challenging task becausemotivation itself is a complex issue. Most mediacenters have procedures in place to ensure that all materials are trackedappropriate, and most also use computers to assist in this process.However, to require that all media center employees and volunteers(remembering that students often work in the media center) use the sameprocedure each and every time is to stifle the creative thinking that isitself a fundamental mission of the media center itself. Understanding the symbolicframe of an educational organization is key to an individual's success inthat organization, and also necessary if change is to be brought to theorganization. According to Maslow, needscan be classified into a hierarchy, with the needs that are lower in thehierarchy being more essential to survival than higher order needs. 396-415. References Arizona says librarians aren't teachers. (May 1988). Organizational Behavior Research There are four assumptions that underlie any organizational behaviorresearch: behavior can be predicted; behavior is caused; behavior has afinite number of causes; and, generalities can be reasonably drawn fromresearch (Bobko & Russell, Spring 1994, p. Organizational philosophy is also cited by Luthans as a part oforganizational culture, and this represents the belief structure thatpermeates an organization. It is important that researchers have athorough understanding of the subject at hand in order to reach conclusionsthat are in keeping with the environment (Edwards, April 1994, p. Schools are different from nearly every otherwork environment in the unique relationships that exist among the variousgroups. J., Dansereau, F., & Hall, R. If the standards are high, then new workers are expected toperform to that level. Certainly, motivation in the classroom is one of the primary functionsof a teacher. Despite the significant shortcoming of offering little explanatoryfacility, correlation analysis can be valuable. The symbolic frame considers thatorganizations are cultures with their own rites and ceremonies, mythology,heroes and stories as unique as any other culture. The structural frame, based on sociology, depends on the formalstructure of the organization to define the situation. Byunderstanding the various approaches that can be taken withinorganizations, administrators are better able to choose an effectivestrategy. 33). The study of organizational behavior is a recentphenomenon that has evolved from pitting managers against employees toseeking a situation where managers and employees work together to achievethe objectives of the institution. Workers also began to resist changes in pay schemes because theysuspected that such changes were designed to increase production rates. This approach was developed byFrederick Taylor and called for the careful analysis of tasks and time-and-motion studies in conjunction with piece-rate pay schemes in order toimprove productivity. This resistancemay be shown in slowdowns in productivity when workers are aware that theyare being observed and measured (Scanlan & Keys, 1983, p. (January 1991). 51-1 .
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