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SOCIOLOGY OF EMOTIONS.
Term Paper ID:30291
Essay Subject:
Discusses feelings of love (sexual, psychological, emotional & affective love).... More...
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Paper Abstract:
Discusses feelings of love (sexual, psychological, emotional & affective love). How the emotion of love leads to romantic attachments. Marriage. Divorce. Conflict between individual desires & authnomy & nature of marriage contract. Marital satisfaction. Acceptance of divorce to end a relationship. High re-marriage rates. Social and cultural context of love.
Paper Introduction:
The recent growth of interest in emotions among anthropolo gists has strong parallels among sociologists, who have since around 1975 devoted increasing attention to the study of emo tions. In point of fact, the American Sociological Association (ASA) now has a "section" on emotions that sponsored its first two thematic sessions at the ASA's 1987 annual meeting (Wellen camp, 1993). A seminal text detailing research issues in this field is Theodore D. Kemper's (1990) Research Agendas in the Sociology of Emotions. In this text, Michael Hammond proclaimed that "the sociology of emotions can produce models as grand as any in the history of social theory (in Kemper, 1990, p. 58)." Similarly, Randall Collins noted that:
Emotion potentially occupies a crucial position
in general sociological theory. As we attempt to
Text of the Paper:
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The recent growth of interest in emotions among anthropologists hasstrong parallels among sociologists, who have since around 1975 devotedincreasing attention to the study of emotions. Kemper, T.D. American Ethnologist, 2 (1),192-193. With respect to love,this is viewed as particularly significant because Kemper (1992) positsmale sexuality as fostering males' interest in or drive toward loverelationships and females' biological competence for visuo-spatial tasks asboth linked to testosterone levels. Vogler, C. William Walsh (1992) has noted that of every 1 individual who divorce, more than 75 can be expected to eventually remarry;men in particular, perhaps because custody of children is more often thannot awarded to mothers than to fathers, tend to remarry earlier than theirex-wives. In this text, Michael Hammond proclaimed that "the sociologyof emotions can produce models as grand as any in the history of socialtheory (in Kemper, 199 , p. Game (1997)further states that emotional experiences may defy points of origin,reminding the emotional "experiencer" or "knower" of the "in-between" as aprinciple of knowing the relationships with the self, the world and others. Kemper (1992) and Hochschild (1985)haver both indicated that testosterone levels are inextricably linked tothe expression of emotions such as love and, as significantly, play a rolein determining emotional energy. Vogler (2 ) questions whether or not the sociology of emotions ingeneral and of love in particular lends itself to separation from otherdisciplines such as psychoanalysis. (199 ). NewYork: Ticknor and Fields. American Journalof Sociology, 93, 263-289. Kemper (1991, 1992) insists that there are two central relationaldimensions of microinteraction (i.e., power and status) that are aggregatedinto social structure. Berkeley, CA:University of California Press. Marital satisfaction is at the heart of the successful marriage.Arendell (1986) discussed the question of what constitutes maritalsatisfaction, pointing out that it incorporates sexual contentment,economic security, trust, a sense of being secure, and a belief that one isvalued, respected and loved by the spouse. Journal ofFamily Issues, 13, 158-178. Among those are an effort to conformoneself to the expectations of society, a desire to show oneself to be"normal," a concern for legitimating sex and children, and a wish forcompanionship and intimacy (Magnet, 1992). Alexander (1995) contends thatas women are afforded greater status in society, they experience enhancedlevels of testosterone and accordingly, achieve reorientations with respectto love and the traditional relationships in which females experience love. When this works, the resultis a form of movement that has been described as flow. St. The U.S.Bureau of the Census reported that for every 1, individuals who livewith a spouse, 137 women and 92 men are divorced (Arendell, 1986). Power entails conduct by which actors compel otheractors to do what they do not wish to do. (1992). Nevertheless, the continued high rate of marriage suggests thatmarriage itself is still a highly respected and desirable institution.Kemper (199 ) theorizes that the emotional drives subsumed by feelings oflove (sexual as well as psychological/emotional/affective love) motivatemost, though hardly all, adult males and females to seek "permanent"romantic attachments to a significant other. (1995). Such concepts are of significance inthat reciprocal relationships between emotions in general and love inparticular and behavior directly influence such sociological phenomena asmarriage and divorce, parenting and childcare, rank and status, and powerrelationships between intimate partners. Game, A. (1992). In addition, couples whodivorce often comment that a general sense of overall dissatisfaction withtheir life and their marital partner was as significant as any other factorinfluencing the divorce decision. Further, remarriage is complicated by the very existence ofchildren from a previous marriage, children who have a right to expect thattheir mother and father will remain actively involved, both emotionally andfinancially, regardless of the presence of a new family (Walsh, 1992). Twenty major issues in remarriagefamilies, Journal of Counseling and Development, 7 , 7 9-715. (1995). In second marriages, conflict regardingchild-rearing responsibilities, power roles and relationships, money, andthe relationship with a past husband and his family are directly linked tohigh marital failure rates; in addition, because most divorced women withcustody of children experience downward social and economic mobility, theytend to report difficulties in finding a new mate of similar educational,social or experiential backgrounds with whom they can experience fulfillinglove relationships (Arendell, 1983). Hill, M.S. In point of fact, theAmerican Sociological Association (ASA) now has a "section" on emotionsthat sponsored its first two thematic sessions at the ASA's 1987 annualmeeting (Wellencamp, 1993). Some comments on the sociology of emotion.Sociology, 29, 151-159. Further, Craib(1995) argues that love and other emotions may even be "pre-social" inorigin. (2 ). Sociology. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. Social identity and emotion: The meeting ofpsychoanalysis and sociology. Dimensions of microinteraction. Tobe with is to feel embodied and in relation. There is no simple relation between the experience and theexpression of emotion and analysis of love as a social, pre-socialphenomena often fails to take into account the enormous individualvariations that can be expressed with respect to love in its human context. (199 ). Research Agendas in the Sociology ofEmotions. A seminal text detailing research issues inthis field is Theodore D. Among the reasons given for divorce rate increases are such factorsas a society-wide lessening of trust in the inherent reliability of themarital relationship. Kemper's (199 ) Research Agendas in the Sociologyof Emotions. Whitehead, B.D. Wallerstein, J., and Blakeslee, S. Alexander (1995) has noted that Kemper (199 ) theorized that thereare relations between behavior and testosterone based on the premise thatsocial factors determine biological events which, in turn, have socialeffects (a socio-bio-social theory). (1993). Perrucci and Knudsen (199 ) have noted that the changes which are nowbeing observed in the composition of the traditional American family beganin the nineteenth century, when institutions other than the family itselfbecame significant in the lives and shaping of individuals and theirattitudes. It is interesting that as divorce rates continue to climb, so too doremarriage rates. Patriarchal authority diminished,repression of sexuality and sexual drives became less and less severe, andthe nuclear family became virtually independent of the kin group (Perrucciand Knudsen, 199 ). (1997). (1991). are eitherdivorced or currently married; this figure increased to 8 percent of menand 85 percent of women when those who are either divorced or widowed areadded in (Perrucci and Knudsen, 199 ). Remarriage is a complicated problem, however, largely because ofthe economic responsibilities to the children of the first marriage (and,in many cases, to the ex-spouse as well); these existing economicobligations can inhibit the financial ability of the individual remarryingto adequately contribute to a second family, which may also includechildren. Inaddition, divorce appears to be higher among Blacks than among Whites, with176 divorced Black males and 265 divorced Black females as compared to 86White males and 128 White females per 1, married individuals (Arendell,1986). The traditional nuclear family, in which a man andwife were expected to remain together literally until "death do us part,"was also affected by such twentieth century social changes as the freeingof women from the demands of homemaking, the advent of improved methods ofbirth control allowing for more effective family planning, the so-calledsexual revolution of the 196 s and 197 s which facilitated a rise in therates of premarital sex and conjugal living without marriage, and theWoman's Liberation Movement which sought alternatives other than marriageand maternity for women (Perrucci and Knudsen, 199 ). Perrucci, R., and Knudsen, D. Unfortunately, the desire of the individual forpersonal freedom and autonomy is often in conflict with the essentialnature of the marriage contract, which in the traditional family emphasizesmutual dependence and compromise rather than self-assertion (Whitehead,1993). (1992). There is risinganger and greater freedom to express that anger between the sexes; men andwomen in the 199 s often perceive themselves to be locked in combat,struggling for personal autonomy and in direct competition with each otherin this pursuit (Wallenstein and Blakeslee, 199 ). Kemper (1991) argues that the powerand status dimensions may be generalized to macro conditions in terms ofboth stratification and in the domain of emotions. (1993). Paul, MN: WestPublishing Co. References Alexander, G.M. Second Chances. Wellenkamp, J.C. Arendell(1986) has noted that many divorced women are ambivalent and uncertain thata new marriage will be significantly "better" than a previous marriage; thenecessity of supporting children with newly limited resources is often afull-time occupation, and single mothers have expressed fears that a newhusband will not be accepted by children or may not himself be capable oftaking on such responsibilities. Many factors are involved in thecontinued high rate of marriage. Divorce rates in the UnitedStates, as elsewhere in the Western world, continue to rise. TheAtlantic, 271, 47-68.----------------------- 13 Similarly, with bothmales and females waiting to marry after completing and education andestablishing a career, the compromises and mutual dependence required tomake any marital relationship a success have become difficult to achievewith ease; when conflict erupts, the modern couples is as likely to abandonthe relationship and "try again" as their parents were to "work it out"(Whitehead, 1993). The role of economic resources andremarriage in financial assistance for children of divorce. The managed heart. Magnet, M. (1987). American Journal ofSociology, 9 , 1368-1371. Couples who do not divorce, regardlessof whether or not they encounter any of a variety of problems in theirmarried lives, often state that they are "generally" pleased with theirspouse, their marriage, the structure of peer relations within the union,and the external and internal condition of their lives (Arendell, 1986).Game (1997) argues from the perspective of the sociology of emotions andits underlying theory that issues related to "self" and identity as loveitself impacts upon identity formation and self-satisfaction are equallysignificant in maintaining a marital or other permanent union. Kemper (199 ), andothers who contributed to his original work, appear to be in agreement thatthe sociology of love requires a knowledge of how love is positioned withina social context along with a more intimate understanding of how love issocially or culturally centered. Archives of Sexual Behavior,24(5), 577-581. Kemper (199 ) and Game (1997) suggest that divorce may be a form ofemotional "dis-positioning" in which earlier feelings of love (motivated bya desire to eliminate loneliness or seek self-affirmation from an "other")are replaced by feelings of anger, frustration and, ultimately, removal. Kemper, T.D. Sexuality remains very much a part of the affective presentation of lovefor both males and females, and as an emotion tends to remind us of whatGame (1997) describes as human corporeality, interconnectedness, andmortality. Whilethese raw figures are indicative of the increase in the overall divorcerate, they also profile significant changes taking place within the familyunit. As we attempt to be more precise and more empirical about sociological concepts, we find that many of the most important rest to a considerable extent upon emotional processes (in Kemper, 199 , p. How many emotions are there? The recognition that there is abiological basis for emotional expression and the development of thenormative influences which shape emotion is one of the most importantcontributions of those social scientists working in this particular field. These "differences,"often poorly articulated in the courts, vary enormously and may refer tosexual dissatisfaction, an inability to live without conflict andhostility, or a recognition of divergent interests and life cycle goals.Given the egalitarian nature of American thought and life, what emergesfrom a review of the literature is a strong indication that divorce isbecoming a more and more accepted method of ending a relationship that has,for literally whatever reason, deteriorated (Wallenstein and Blakeslee,199 ). The American family. Love isboth a strong emotion and very much an artifact of unconscious socialprocesses which can be generalized across social groups but which alwayscontains emotional intersubjectivity. Sociology's emotions. Census data indicates that approximately 7 percent ofmen and 65 percent of women over the age of 18 in the U.S. (1992). Wallenstein and Blakeslee (199 ) have noted that while many couplesdivorce because of the "big issues" such as marital infidelity, abuse of aspouse, or unresolved conflicts centering upon such problems as alcoholism,drug abuse, or other psychological matters, more and more couples whoarrive in the divorce courts claim "irreconcilable differences" as thebasis for seeking a dissolution to the marriage. Craib (1995), commenting on Kemper's (199 ) fundamental theory of thesociology of emotions and on the emotional significance of love per se, hasstated that love cannot be treated as if it has an existence independent ofthe social and cultural context in which it is experienced. In addition, relationships between men and womenare, now more than ever before, infused with anxiety. This in turn suggests that there are ways of looking at love whichtake into consideration the notion of a certain degree of universality thattranscends culture itself.He suggests that individuals are by definition engaged in at least twointerlocking forms of emotional work: the internal work of coping withcontradiction, conflict, and ambivalence, and the external work ofreconciling of what goes on inside with what one is supposed or allowed tofeel. Craib, I. Perhaps the high divorcerate would be less troubling if we viewed divorce as a way of incorporatingthe emphasis on individual desires and freedom into lifestyles (Perrucciand Knudsen, 199 ). The Canadian Review ofSociology and Anthropology, 34(4), 385-4 . Arendell, T. Dan Quayle was right. This is an experience of being in relation with the other. (199 ). Hochschild, A.R. Love as a sociological emotion oftenmoves well beyond the general constructs of social identities such asnationalism or culture and turns toward an important emotional dimensionwhich coexists with but cannot be reduced to the purely social. (1986). Fortune, 126,42-48. 58)." Similarly, Randall Collins noted that: Emotion potentially occupies a crucial position in general sociological theory. AmericanJournal of Sociology, 96(1), 32-38. Schools, which emphasized individual achievement, jobs inindustry which were individual rather than family positions, and courtshipshifts in which the interest of the individual became paramount - each ofthese factors was somewhat instrumental in eliminating the power, authorityand influence of the family unit. Sociologists and others tend to regard the increase in the divorcerate as evidence of a decline in the strength of the traditional marriagepattern. Kemper, T.D. Slowly these external social chanceswere incorporated into the family. The discussionwhich has been presented above supports this assertion. Walsh, W.M. The Sociological Review, 48, 19-43. While it is true that both males and females are waiting longer inthe 199 s to marry than their counterparts did in the 195 s and even the197 s, it is also true that marriage motivated by feelings of love remainsa goal of choice for most men and women (Game, 1997; Kemper, 199 ; Perrucciand Knudsen, 199 ). Status entails conduct thatconveys voluntarycompliance, deference, and acceptance. Women who have small children or several children experience moredifficulties than do their former spouses in finding new mates. (1985). Social structure and testosterone:Explorations of the socio-bio-social chain. Book Review. Game (1997) suggests that the sociology of love should legitimatelybe focused on the process of knowing or allowing oneself to experienceexperience. Ed. Predicting emotions from social relations.Social Psychology Quarterly, 54(4), 33 -342. These figures represent a significant increase in the total numberof divorced individuals when compared to 196 , when only 28 males and 42females per 1, married people were divorced (Arendell, 1986). Kemper, T.D. 27).This brief report will examine a specific aspect of the sociology ofemotions -- that of dealing with love, in which Kemper (199 ) is certainlyprescient in noting that elements of power and status are omnipresent. Mothers and Divorce. Game (1997) suggests,however, that the very ideas of flesh and touch are "about" emotionalrelations and are the major drives spurring the development of perceivedlove among adults as well as other age groups.
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