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TRENDS IN ISLAMISM.
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Discusses various kinds of nationalist & ethnic identifications throughout the territory of Islam.... More...
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Paper Abstract:
Discusses various kinds of nationalist & ethnic identifications throughout the territory of Islam. Religious reformism. Shared vision of political community. Islamic view of state and religion as one. Political implications. Failure to meet economic needs. History of Islamism. Nature of current Islamic movements. Western perceptions of Islamism. The movement's appeal.
Paper Introduction:
An individual's primary group allegiance can shift in the event of a perceived threat against another group with which s/he identifies. This accounts to a great extent for the changing fortunes of Islamism and various kinds of nationalist and ethnic identifications throughout the dar-al-Islam (or, territory of Islam) since the middle of the nineteenth century. Religious factionalism, ethnic conflict, and secular nationalism have all been set aside in favor of Islamism at various times. Yet it is difficult to define this term, which refers to a variety of movements all of which are based in religious reformism but can have differing protest or emancipatory goals. As Voll (1991) defined it, Islamism is "a distinctive mode of response to major social and cultural change introduced either by exogenous or indigenous forces and perceived as threatening to dilute or
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And various forms ofIslamism continue to be used by regimes or other interests to providethemselves with an aura of legitimacy. Thisaccounts to a great extent for the changing fortunes of Islamism andvarious kinds of nationalist and ethnic identifications throughout the dar-al-Islam (or, territory of Islam) since the middle of the nineteenthcentury. 1). The empire, which ruled over the Islamic world up to theborders of Iran, lost the Caucasus--including Georgia and Armenia--toRussia by 1829, lost all of its possessions in the Balkans between 1828 and1878, lost Algeria (183 ) and Tunisia (1881) to the French, and Egypt(1882) to the British. 131). 12). Not all pan-Islamic initiatives have, it is true, been motivatedby purely religious feeling, nor have all Islamist movements been pan-Islamic in their focus--although they implicitly hold that every Islamicnation would be best off with a purely Islamic state. Our mission does not envisage an overthrow of the regime in the sense of holding the reins of power regardless of people's temperament or whether they approve of this regime or not. The principal beneficiaries of these openings have been Islamist movements. Thus the nationalism that many supposed would be the source ofmodernization proved to be the impetus for a return to the safety of the(somewhat imaginary) past. Arabism, Islamism, and the future of the Arabworld [review of The Making of an Egyptian Arab Nationalist. 4). (2 ). He makes the claim, for instance, that, Many Arab countries, in addition to the oil exporters, are reaching levels of economic and social development where autocratic forms of government become inappropriate and efforts to introduce democracy become stronger. This commitment of the ruling elites to the artificial nationalboundaries drawn by the Europeans was not surprising since they had eitherbeen placed in power by the foreigners or had their regimes approved bythem. Daedalus, 128(2), 127-136. In order to ensure this they also revived thenotion of the Sultan as the caliph which meant not only assurance thatIslamic identity would be retained but provided an unimpeachablejustification for the Ottoman state's interventions in those areas undercontrol of the British and the Russians. Samuel P. Many of its proponents pushed Arabism as thesolution to the encroachments of the European powers in the region. The integrity of the umma onlybecame a serious question when political and cultural inroads were made byother, almost always European, powers. (1996). He accomplished most of this reconquest by 19 2 and hisarmy was "poised to take their holy war to the rest of the Muslim world"(Masoud, 1999, p. a shared diagnosis of Middle Eastern regimes and modern political sovereignty as morally and politically bankrupt, but a deeply held conviction that the antidote to state corruption, internal disunity, military defeats, and Western dominance requires the rejection of human aspirations to know fully and thus rule the world and the establishment of Shari'ah (Islamic law) as an expression of the supremacy of divine authority (p. But the disintegration of the Ottoman empire proved to be only thefirst of the major junctures in modern history at which Islamist movementsarose. The essay concludes with analysis of some Westernperceptions of Islamism and a comment on the likely continuation of themovement's appeal. 3 ).But when the nineteenth century became little more than a series of lossesof territory to the European powers Ottoman proponents of Islamism becamemore serious. Thus Islamism came increasingly to constitute an answer to the"struggle to identify the basis for a shared vision of political community"and this need arose in the last quarter of the twentieth century inresponse to various outside pressures as well as to the perception of themoral, political, and social bankruptcy of authoritarian regimes in theregion (Hovsepian, 1995, p. (1999). The Arabs and Islam: The troubled search forlegitimacy. E. At that juncture ethnic or sectarian identities may tend tore-emerge. Fundamentalism in the Sunni Arab world: Egyptand Sudan'. The clash of civilizations? Attack [infatuation] with the West and the East, and recover your true identity (quoted in Ali, 2 , p. But the somewhat triumphalist toneof Kepel's article demonstrates the extent to which he conceives of the dar-al-Islam as merely treading water until it can achieve some version ofWestern capitalism and democracy. As the most successful of Islamist revolutionaries,Iran's Ayatollah Khomeini, said to the people, Repel the treacherous superpowers . An exampleof this is the finalization of colonialism's decline after World War II andthe rise of nationalism in the Middle East. But Huntington (1993) at least acknowledges that Islamism has somehistorical context beyond last week. Whether these small tokens indicate that Islamistmovements are likely to gradually modify their positions in some respectsonce they have achieved power is uncertain, even though the case of Iransuggests that such is likely to be the case. Kepel, G. 22). Other Western writers deny even this. This has come to have a significant impact in thelast few decades because Islam "has served as the basis for politicallegitimacy in the Arab world ever since the death of the prophet" andchallengers of the current state of affairs hold that most of the presentregimes in the dar-al-Islam are illegitimate by this standard (Masoud,1999, p. But in the most violently repressive states--such as Syria, SaudiArabia, Iraq, Afghanistan, and Sudan--"the crisis of authoritarian regimesbreeds violence" (Hovsepian, 1995, p. Reformism has a long history in Islam and even in the early Medievalperiod the continuing acquisition of new converts from a variety ofcultures meant that ulema, the scholars charged with the interpretation oflaw and tradition, were frequently forced to rule on the Islamic or un-Islamic character of various "newly acquired institutions, traditions, andpractices" (Ali, 2 , p. But Abdul Aziz knew that while the British andFrench might have allowed him to retake the inconsequential deserts andoases of the peninsula they were unlikely to "be so lax in defending theirinterests in Syria and Iraq" and so he concluded a treaty in which heachieved support for his rule in Arabia and promised to stop with there(Masoud, p. Nationalist movements seemedto promise that Islamic identity would be safeguarded by self-rule and itwas not until this promise was negated by the persistence of authoritarianregimes in the region (governments perceived as client states of thesuperpowers, it should be noted) that religious revivalism and reform cameagain to seem like the means of correcting the problems that plagued theIslamic countries. By defining a civilization as "the highestcultural grouping of people and the broadest level of cultural identitypeople have short of that which distinguishes humans from other species"Huntington tried to lend his thesis a touch of scientific credibility thatis hardly warranted (p. In Kepel's thesis Islamismis a short-lived group of fundamentalist movements that have already beenundone by their own success in those places where they have achieved power:Iran, Sudan, and Afghanistan. 6). For example, the MuslimBrotherhood--which was founded in Egypt in 1928 and generally favorsgrassroots activism via educational and charitable programs--has branchesin many countries. 24). None the less their failure to meet the economic needs of the peopletended to raise challenges to these governments and Islamist movementsusually held that it was the accretion of foreign influences--including,but not limited to, their military and economic support in many cases byone of the two superpowers or by Western European nations--that wasresponsible for their failures. The rise of Islamism in the postcolonialera was tied, however, to the overt failure of these governments ratherthan to their secular or inadequately religious orientations or theirfailure to achieve legitimacy through the assent of the governed--a conceptthat has different meanings in Islam than in the West. References Abu-Rabi, I. An individual's primary group allegiance can shift in the event of aperceived threat against another group with which s/he identifies. In this essay a brief review of the historyof Islamism will be followed by a discussion of the nature of currentIslamist movements. 134). While Voll's (1991) definition neatly encompasses a range of Islamistpositions it tends to leave the question of Islamic identity open and toomit what might be called the "autonomy of the religious impulse" byoveremphasizing the pragmatic and heterogeneous nature of Islamism (Euben,p. In the initialstages of decolonization after World War I and in the finalization of thisprocess after World War II nationalism seemed to hold some promise as ameans of integrating an acceptable and necessary level of modernizationinto the emergent Islamic states. 11).Islamism is a force that must be understood in order to comprehend thechallenges that are mounted today to many Islamic regimes, and aresupported by millions of people--partly in defiance of the West, and, tothe confusion of the West, in defiance of the seeming 'logic' of thepopular demand for democracy and economic liberalism that 'should' ariseamong any struggling people. For, underlying each of the 'Islamisms'of the twentieth century is the belief that its members, or rather theulema attached to them, are the best arbiters of an Islamic society--regardless of the ethnic or even sectarian composition of the populationthat comes under its sway. 24). 3). The power of the Saudi royal family, for example, originated in itspromulgation of the Wahabi sect's radically unitarian beliefs. At the simplest level the governmentsuppresses Islamist groups but "promotes its own brand of Islam in aneffort to outdo its Islamist opponents in terms of religious purity"(Masoud, p. Other occasions included the surge of European imperialism thatfollowed from the mandate system, the failure of early liberalism, and the"consolidation of the modern state system" established in the wake of WorldWar I (Hovsepian, 1995, p. Had he considered these facts,Huntington might have been able to produce reasons for the recent appeal ofIslamism, but he cites only the Islamic hatred of secular culture and thetraditional enmity between Islam and Europe. Thetruly Islamic state is ruled by shari'ah alone and adheres firmly to thefaith in all matters. Voll, J. (1991). 646).In the Islamic view the state and religion are not separate entities. 15). The growing poverty and rapidlyincreasing populations throughout the dar-al-Islam made it incumbent uponreligious authorities and the pious to explain how the abrogation oftradition, especially the purity of Islamic way of life, had been not justthe responsibility but the policy of the authoritarian regimes which, inturn, vigorously sought to repress these challenges. S. On the one hand thedifficulties of the Iranian revolutionary state that have forced a certainlevel of acceptance of the world economic system may foretell a future ofIslamist states that are capable of such minimum adjustments to modernity.And, on the other hand, the words of Abdul Majid Thunaybat, the leader ofthe Jordanian Muslim Brotherhood, indicate that a more studied and seriousapproach--one that eschews shock tactics and violence--may be successful: Our approach to education is to begin with the individual and then move on to the family and then ultimately the Islamic government that rules as provided for in God's sharia. 15).The Ayatollah's words are important because they make it eminently clearthat it is not only Western secular culture and personal and politicalfreedoms that are anathema to Islamist groups. As news of each of theseEuropean depredations on the community of Islam spread "the appeal ofIslamic unity also grew in strength" (Kia, p. The more cynical use of Islamism as a political tool was initiated inthe eighteenth century when the Ottomans, after being forced to cede Crimeato Russia in 1774, sought to "secure their religious and cultural influencein the former Muslim province" by means of an appeal to Islam and therevival of the idea of the caliphate, claiming that the Turkish Sultanruled not only his own domain was also the caliph, leader in spiritual, ifnot always temporal, terms of the entire Islamic world (Kia, 1996, p. . Rely on the culture of Islam, resist Western imitation, and stand on your own feet. 91). ForeignAffairs, 72(3), 22-49. As Sahliyeh notes,in the postwar period the regimes in most Middle Eastern nations suppliedgenerous economic rewards to the people that were made possible by "theavailability of external rents in the form of oil revenues, foreign aidfrom the oil producing states, the superpowers, and Western Europe,external borrowings, tourism, and fees imposed on the transport of oil"(2 , p. 15). Thus the concept of "Islamism, as a reformist phenomenon, iscenturies old," but the great majority of these movements operated within adar-al-Islam that was under the control of Muslim rulers and faced externalchallenges only at its edges (Ali, p. The EarlyYears of Azzam Pasha, 1893-1936 and Arabism, Islamism, and the PalestineQuestion, 19 8-1941: A Political History]. Butthe elites of the Arab world, who had consistently failed "to represent thepolitical and social aspirations of the masses," also ignored the politicalhopes of Arabists who "fervently sought to create an Arab national state inthe Middle East" (Abu-Rabi, p. Some openings in Arab political systems have already occurred. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. No mode of genuinepolitical participation had, however, been instituted in most of thesenations. As Voll (1991) defined it, Islamism is "a distinctivemode of response to major social and cultural change introduced either byexogenous or indigenous forces and perceived as threatening to dilute ordissolve the clear lines of Islamic identity, or to overwhelm that identityin a synthesis of many different elements" (quoted in Ali, 2 , p. The shi'ite Iranian rulers,needless to say, were unwilling to accept the leadership of the sunniOttomans. Islamism reconsidered. In reviewing the history of Islamism it becomes clear that the turnto the defense of Islamic identity has followed a pattern in which thereduction of external threat and the rise of inspiring alternativeidentities places Islamism on hold until a new threat arises. Restore the glory of Islam, and abandon your selfish disputes and differences, for you possess everything! 2).In the meantime, however, it is necessary that people in the Westunderstand the true roots of Islamism's protest against the status quo.Without a knowledge of the past and the present realities of the MiddleEast the West will, perhaps, never know that in the case of the dar-al-Islam the right of self-determination, which the West values so highly, hasnever been granted to the people who now see Islamism the means to ensurethat their own values direct their lives. 4). (1995). Religious factionalism, ethnic conflict, and secular nationalismhave all been set aside in favor of Islamism at various times. Arab Studies Quarterly, 22, 91-97. Euben, however, suggests that, while the tensions between sucheconomic realities and Iran's "uncompromising rhetoric of Islamicauthenticity and anti-Westernism" are indeed problematic, the notion ofutter "incommensurability" between the Islamist world view and aspects ofthe world economic system is exaggerated by both sides (1997, p. Euben, R. But genuine Islamist reformmovements today hold, as Euben notes, not only . Other universalist "ideas of political integration that cutacross state frontiers" and had an effect on the dar-al-Islam includedmodernizing movements, pan-Turkism, pan-Arabism, and Marxism (Hovsepian, p.5). 23). 129). 95). To acknowledge this pattern would lead to questions aboutthe perceived illegitimacy of many of the current authoritarian regimes ofthe region which are challenged, in part, because they are supported byWestern powers--the United States in particular. 5). In addition, the Iranian empire suffered greatlosses as Russia occupied the vast reaches of Muslim Central Asia duringthe second half of the nineteenth century. Since the only unifying feature of this array of (mostly)artificially created states was religion these political arrangements, madeby the West, were to become not just the source of "disunity anddiscontent" but the progenitors of a situation that, as many were easilypersuaded, could only be remedied by a return to the purity of the faithand the integrity of the umma (Ali, p. In view of the multifarious nature of Islamism, however, the effortto treat it as a monolithic phenomenon is clearly "to sacrifice reality atthe altar of simplicity," yet this is the dominant approach in the West(Ali, 2 , p. Huntington, in his very influential 1993article (and subsequent book) on the coming "clash of civilizations,"identified Islam as one of the civilizations that would inevitably conflictwith the West--and with others. . Observing `Islamisms' [review of IslamicFundamentalism]. (1997). In Egypt the group "experienced violent clashes" withthe secularist President Nasser and was repressed by his successors, butthe Jordanian branch cultivated a "relatively cordial and cooperativerelationship" with the Hashemite rulers and has acquired an unusual degreeof influence in that kingdom--which they hope eventually to 're-convert' toa society completely imbued with the purest form of Islam that they canimagine (Wiktorowicz, 1999, p. 9). Religious content is increased in the schools, arrestsare made for serious impiety, and broadcast media are required to devoteever greater amounts of time to religious programming. 646). O. This does not mean just theviolent tactics of some Islamist groups. But, as Masoud (1999) has demonstrated in the case of Egypt, thisstrategy is self-defeating. In economic terms hefound "mounting poverty, unemployment, demographic surge, lack of capital,and economic recession, whether resulting from strains in the economy orfrom interstate political conflicts" and, as Sahliyeh argued, theseconditions were having a destabilizing effect on many of the regimes--inpart because the Islamic conception of the state sees the public welfare asits duty and, whether for purely pragmatic or genuinely religious reasons,these states had assumed that burden (p. And so long as benefits and societal needs were largely met--an important function of the state in Islamic ideology--a level of"political apathy" allowed the rulers to exercise their will "unconstrainedby popular pressure" (Sahliyeh, p. Hovsepian, N. . . Arab Studies Quarterly, 21(4), 1-24. It refers to the daily reality ofviolence that a totalitarian state such as Iraq or Sudan uses as a means torule, to the frequency of violent means used to impose the law in othercountries, to the suppression of ethnic minorities in nations such as Iraq,and to the resulting civil wars in Sudan and Afghanistan. 31). (1999). 644).Various types of syncretism creep into many of the Islamist movementsincluding Egyptian Islamists' appeal for social justice and attempts toestablish an alternative welfare system--which draws at once on Islamiccharitable traditions and "the legacy of European social theory"--andnotions of an 'authentic' Islamic Caliphate, "a political theory at oncehostile to and parasitic upon a Western model of the modern nation-state"(Euben, p. (1993). Kepel, for example, avers that the last few decades "saw the rise of anunexpected phenomenon: Islamism" (2 , p. Islamism's latest incarnations arose inresponse to a perceived threat of contamination--by Western dominance andby authoritarian regimes infiltrated by Western ideas. But Islamism was only one of several universalist ideas that becameinfluential in the twentieth century--though it has proved the mostenduring. Islamist movements also responddifferently to different political environments. 134). There is a widevariety of responses, however, which range from the terrorist violence ofAl Qaeda to the peaceful gradualism of the Muslim Brotherhood of Jordan.Yet all these movements favor the return to shari'ah and the purest form ofIslam they can devise, which can only be accomplished by eliminating (or,at least, severely minimizing) external influences within the dar-al-Islam. Periodically reformist movements arose,such as those of Ahmad Ibn Hanbal in the ninth century and Ahmad IbnTaimiyya in the fourteenth, that demanded the return of Islam to itsoriginal state--in large part through the removal of all its alienadditions. In order to imply that this unavoidableconflict was practically embedded in human genes, however, Huntington hadto resort to gross simplifications and exaggerations to explain the openingcreated for recent Islamism. He notes, for example, that "thebankruptcy of the Islamic Republic of Iran's political project has dealtthe first blow to the general enthusiasm that galvanized the Islamistmovement as a whole in the twilight of the twentieth century," but does notseem to wonder whether this change might have some meaning aside from thesupposed triumph of Western notions of economic realities (and does notmention continuing American economic sanctions on trade with Iran) (Kepel,p. Any foreign accretions thatlent an un-Islamic character to the culture of the dar-al-Islam were seenas militating against the integrity of the umma and threatening the pureexpression of Islam. Ali, A. This group based its program ofpan-Islamic thought on the claim that "it was necessary to modernize thepolitical, military, and economic institutions of the empire" but also"insisted on the need to retain the basic Islamic characteristics of thesociety" (Kia, 1996, p. (2 ). Eventhese individual 'Islamisms' are not, however, "monolithic entities" butare made up of numerous interests and "struggles over sacred authority,tactics, and Islamic interpretation" create important internal differenceswhile these disagreements, in turn, "engender alternative patterns of state-movement interaction" and an array of different responses to externaldangers (Wiktorowicz, 1999, p. M. There are trends in Islamism that seem to offer hope that itsinfluence will eventually be beneficial to the region. 25). In the inter-war period, for example, Arabism rose, partly in responseto vociferous pan-Turkism, and promoted "a collective Arab politicalconsciousness that transcends regional boundaries and tribal identities"(Abu-Rabi, 2 , p. Thus, in fighting off these challenges, even the manyauthoritarian states of the Middle East--from the Baathist secularists ofIraq to the supposedly Wahabist fundamentalists of Saudi Arabia--"seekIslamic cover for their policies" and struggle against the encroachments ofIslamist movements which, while they are sometimes tied to specific ethnicor national groups, almost always extend the scope of their criticismacross all of the dar-al-Islam and the umma (or, community of believers)regardless of ethnicity or nationality (Masoud, p. In response to threats, however, the various Islamistmovements have always held varying sectarian notions, different methods,and a whole range of affiliations with ethnic and national interests. P. These states were insufficiently Islamicand, especially in the case of the oil-rich nations--they had sold out thepeople's interests to the West in exchange for the satisfaction of theelites' security or economic needs. The first important modern version of Islamism was the pan-Islamicinitiative begun in the late nineteenth century by the Young Ottomans, agroup of Turkish intellectuals who were disturbed by the ongoingdisintegration of the Ottoman empire and appalled at its inability todefend itself against European aggression. Marty and R. Sahliyeh(2 ), for example, studied the dar-al-Islam from Morocco to Afghanistan(including Turkey but not the Central Asian states, the Caucasus, Pakistan,Indonesia, or Malaysia) in the period 197 -1994. But Western analyses of Islamism such as those of Huntington (1993)and Kepel (2 ) also tend to ignore the pattern of increased Islamistactivism arising in response to threats perceived to originate outside thedar-al-Islam. Islamists, the state, and cooperation inJordan. By thetwentieth century the family's fortunes had waned but Abdul Aziz Ibn Saudrevived them with his campaign--based on the military strength of the fullycommitted Wahabist warriors whom he had indoctrinated--to retake all of theArabian peninsula. 131). Yet it isdifficult to define this term, which refers to a variety of movements allof which are based in religious reformism but can have differing protest oremancipatory goals. These regimes needed no significantlevel of popular assent in order to govern in this fashion, but with thechange in their economic fortunes it began to be necessary to cut back ongovernment spending and social services and, without public support, theseactions would threaten the stability of their rule. 7). 128). But as the political elites seized on nationalism as ameans of satisfying their own interests this potential was seen to be anillusion. Sahliyeh, E. Contention over who is authorized to define the Islamic natureof the state and apply (as well as interpret) shari'ah generate furtherconflict between ethnic groups and sects, most of whom are committed inprinciple to the rule of Islamic law. 645). In the Arab world, in short, Western democracy strengthens anti-Western political forces (p. Review of Politics, 59, 643-647. 11). He argues that Islamism's opposition tonationalist regimes, and suppression by them, "encouraged the growth ofreligious networks onto which its nascent politics were grafted" but oncethey gained power the various movements either succumbed to the pressure ofmodern realities (as with Iran's 1997 election of the supposedly liberalMohammad Khatami) or resorted to extreme authoritarianism and suppressionof minorities which has resulted in endless civil wars (as was the case inAfghanistan and Sudan) (Kepel, p. 29).But these supposed levels of economic well-being and increasing democraticovertures are not found by researchers who study the region. Masoud, T. But the problems in Sudan andAfghanistan alternatively suggest that Islamist identity does notnecessarily continue to hold pride of place once the religious reformersare in power. The limits of state power in the Middle East.Arab Studies Quarterly, 22, 1-31. Kia, M. (2 ). 3). Appleby (Eds). Nationalism was seen as a counter-forceagainst "alien control and as a reassertion of an umma free of infidelpower [rather] than as a constructive and ethnically unifying phenomenon"(Ali, 2 , p. L. 23). We seek the creation of faithful grassroots that receive these instructions and this order, and government by Islam comes later (Wiktorowicz, 1999, p. Marxism and other leftist theories--although they were finallydiscredited (at least for now) with the disintegration of the Soviet Union--exerted a strong enough appeal in the Middle East that socialist idealswere seen as a threat nearly as grave as Western economic liberalism andsecular freedoms. FundamentalismsObserved. This behavior, however, outraged his Islamist-mindedfollowers (who continued their war in the north for some years) but provedto be an indication of what was to come in terms of most of the Islamicelites' relationship to Islamism. But such actions--in which the state, regardless of its legitimacy or true commitment toIslam, is seen as the guarantor of the faith--merely had the result of"feed[ing] into the public desire for a more Islamicized society" (Masoud,p. Harvard InternationalReview, 22(2), 22-27. Competing identities in the Arab world.Journal of International Affairs, 49, 1-24 Huntington, S. In terms of democraticinitiatives he found that in 91% of the country-year cases the governmentsof the region, which were nearly all autocracies or oligarchies, "did notpromote elite competition, increase public accountability, or encouragemass participation" (Sahliyeh, p. Pan-Islamism in late nineteenth-century Iran.Middle Eastern Studies, 32, 3 -52. (2 ). Wiktorowicz, Q. And when, following the second World War,the process of decolonization was more or less completed in the dar-al-Islam the initial hopes vested in the emerging states were soon overturnedby the growing realization that the authoritarian regimes of the postwarera were incapable of maintaining their initial levels of support forpublic welfare and were, in the Western mode, primarily intent on theaccumulation of personal wealth and power. Islamism: Emancipation, protest and identity.Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, 2 , 11-28. But they recognized the power of a pan-Islamic appeal andunderstood that the Ottomans made an excellent point in their hope that aunited Islamic world "would deter the European powers from pursuing theirexpansionist and aggressive policy" (Kia, p. E. 12).
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