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RISE OF MUSLIM SCIENCE AND ASTRONOMY.
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Traces the rise of Muslim scholarship from the 8th & 9th Centuries.... More...
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Paper Abstract:
Traces the rise of Muslim scholarship from the 8th & 9th Centuries. Syntheses of existing astronomical traditions--Persian, Indian & Greek texts. Arab knowlededge of celestial world. Importance of Ptolemaic model for the planets. Establlishment of House of Wisdom in Baghdad. Islamic impact on development of astronomy & mathematics. Contribution of astrologers.
Paper Introduction:
The rise of Muslim science began after the life of the
prophet Mohammed and the beginning of Islam in the seventh century. The eighth and ninth centuries involved the period of consolidation of the Muslim people, and the real rise of Muslim scholarship occurred in the ninth and tenth centuries (Al-Daffa’, 1977). The Muslims integrated the astronomical traditions of the Indians, Persians, the ancient near east, and especially the Greeks into a synthesis which began to chart a new chapter in the history of astronomy from the eighth century onward (IAL). The unification of the tribes of Arabia into a powerful nation, including Persia, Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, the whole North Africa, Gibraltar, and Spain created a vast intellectual empire (Ead). However, the Greek legacy did not immediately dominate without a struggle with native scien
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. It was also Islam that induced Muslimmathematicians not to limit themselves to one particular field but tobecome universalists (Al-Daffa', p. (1971). Prophet Mohammed's death in the seventh century resulted in theconsolidation of the scattered and disunited tribes of the ArabianPeninsula, wise governing by the caliphs, and a more powerful nation (Al-Daffa', 1977). Thabit ibn Qurra tried to improve the Ptolemaictheory in planetary motion by adding a ninth sphere to account for the(imaginary) trepidation of the equinoxes (Ead). (2 1). Additionally,astronomical tools were developed, the most significant of which appears tohave been the astrolabe. Greek Influence on Islamic AstronomyOverview Prior to the seventh century, the Arabs possessed a basicknowledge of the celestial world, simply enough to guide them in theirtravels through the desert. These religious concernswere of primary importance in astrology falling out of favor in Islamiccommunities. Al-Shaghani invented andconstructed many astronomical instruments. Some concepts from Greek astronomy reached Islam in the eight-centurythrough translations of Sanskrit and Phalavi texts. The time separatingPtolemy from ninth-century Baghdad played a role in exaggerating mistakesthat were too small to be noticed during the time of Ptolemy, but afterhundreds of years, the variations in these parameters became too large tobe tolerated. (1999). Thesetranslations were circulated to Islamic universities as far away as Spainand Italy, transferring vast quantities of scientific knowledge to Europeduring the Dark Ages (Al-Daffa', 1977). Evidence indicates that these eclecticwritings were still in use in the eighth and ninth centuries, but nothinghas been recovered which really accounts for planetary motion. Unlike the western world, where narrowinterpretations of religion by church authorities was viewed as animpediment to mathematical advance, Islam encouraged Muslims not to limitthemselves but to study and work in a wide array of scientific disciplines. He builtanother observatory in which the inclination of the ecliptic wasreestablished and tables of the planetary motions were carefullyconstructed (Ead). Astronomical observations had practicalapplications beyond finding the direction of Makkah for prayers, whichincluded devising almanacs (the world itself being of Arabic origin). Throughout its chapters and verses,the Quran emphasizes the significance of knowledge and encourages Muslimsto acquire knowledge of God's laws as well as the importance of seeing,contemplating, and reasoning about the world of creation and its diversephenomena. Student Exhibition at Oxford University. Ibn al-A'lam was a famousobserver and published astronomical tables. This would eventually lead to a virtuallycomplete separation of the two sciences. As religioustexts were standardized and codified, from the tenth century onward,systematic religious attacks on astrology took place. Schools, colleges, libraries, observatories, andhospitals were built throughout this Islamic state (Ead). Since theultimate control of human destiny remained in the hands of God, it isrelatively easy to see why Muslims viewed this science of astrology aspolytheistic (Saliba 1994). Professor George Sarton of Harvard University stated inhis Life of Science: I must insist on the fact that, though a major part of the activity of Arabic writing scholars consisted in the translation of Greek works and their assimilation, they did far more than that. Onepurpose of observation was to attempt to solve the problem of contradictoryparameters (thought all were descendants of Hellenistic astronomy) in thethree systems known to early astronomers: the Indian (Sindhind), theIranian (Shah), and the Ptolemaic (Almagest). Those who wrote in Arabic at the timeseemed to hold Greek heritage in awe and made very few changes in thewritings (Saliba, 1994). Al-Daffa', Ali Abdullah. The Islamic ability to harmonizehuman thought in theology, philosophy, and science through monotheism andscientific poof was a first. Pingree, David. The result was the developmentin Islam of a mathematical astronomy that was largely Ptolemaic, but inwhich new parameters and ideas were introduced (Pingree, 1973).The Ptolemaic Influence The importance of Ptolemy's Almagest was realized by astronomerswriting in Arabic as soon as the text was translated into Arabic, sometimeduring the latter part of the eighth century or the early part of the ninth (Saliba, 1973). Greek, Arabic, and Latin were in concurrent use, andthe primary contribution to the Muslim culture was the translation of Greekdocuments dealing primarily with the fields of astronomy and mathematics(Al-Daffa', 1977). Giza, Egypt. The foremost men of science continued to be Muslims through the tenthcentury. Successfully making this distinction meantthe astronomer was free to practice his craft in harmony within a communitythat supported his research, provided that the practice of astrology wasabandoned. Hiscontributions included editing three astronomical tables, the firstdetermination of time by an altitude, the introduction of the notion ofshadow corresponding to our tangent, and the fist compilation of a table oftangents. (2 1). However, astrologers continued to make contributions to scientificdevelopment. The early writers treated bothdisciplines under the same rubric, with the implication that astrology wasthe natural sequel to, yet distinguishable from, astronomy, as expressed byPtolemy himself. Islamic Contributions to Science.Retrieved March 7, 2 1 from the World Wide Web:http://www.umr.edu/~msaumr/reference/articles/science/contribution.html. The two disciplines were commonly considered as branchesof the same science, however, astrology was in direct conflict with thetenants of the Islamic faith. Retrieved March 11, 2 1 from theWorld Wide Web:http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/introduction/woi_knowledge.html. Atlantic Highlands: Humanities Press. Documents andconcepts of ancient antiquity, a plethora of cultural ideas, and a questfor knowledge fueled by Islamic tenants all contributed to the developmentof Islamic astronomy in the eighth, ninth, and tenth centuries. The size of the Islamic empire contributed tothe spread of the religious tenants as well as the meshing of differingcultures and stimulating innovation. Early in this intellectual revival, the Indian traditionwas relied upon heavily, and it took a generation or two before the moresophisticated, systematic, and coherent Greek tradition rose to prominence(Saliba, 1994). Islamic Affairs Department (IAD). The establishment of learningcenters, such as the House of Wisdom, provided forums for Islamicastronomers to continue to grow and develop the body of knowledge in theirfield. The creation of a new civilization of international and encyclopedic magnitude within less than two centuries is something that we can describe, but not completely explain (p. & David Pingree. All of the significant scientific leaders in the second half of theninth century were Muslims. These accomplishments make him one of the mostsignificant figures in medieval Islamic astronomy, with an enormous amountof very important and influential scientific work being done under hispatronage during the course of the ninth century. Largely non-Ptolemaicideas were represented as well as ideas and methods altered according tothe traditions of India and Iran. For Muslims,the Quran is the actual word of God, the central sacred reality of Islam,and the guide par excellence for life. The AstrologicalHistory of Masha'allah. Retrieved March 11, 2 1, from theWorld Wide Web: http://www.levity.com/alchemy/islam.html. It was composed of alibrary, an academy, and a translation institution, which proved to be themost significant educational establishment in centuries (Al-Daffa', 1977). Such concepts as the Sasanian theory ofinterpreting history astrologically was introduced to the Arabs and passedthrough the empire (Pingree, 1962). Hints within the Quranlikely enhanced the curiosity of scholars and probably fueled their questfor knowledge. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. The Persian, Al-Naubakht and the Jew, Mashallahjoined efforts to make crucial measurements for the building of Baghdad(Ead). An Islamic Astrolabe. (1994). Al-Naubakht and Mashallah joined forces to make measurementsnecessary for the building of Baghdad. The library contained books on subjects ranging from literature, Islamicscience and natural sciences to logic, philosophy, and many other subjectsof thought (Ahmad). In medieval Islamic times, the mosque wasthe focal point of the intellectual and social life of the community, sothe acceptability of their work into this central life of the communityhinged on their ability to define their work as astronomy and distinguishthe same work from astrology. Ead, Hamed A. 15 -151). The Muslim Contribution toMathematics. (Al-Daffa', 1977). Eagleton, Katie. Al-Fargham was another significant figure and was the firstMuslim to write a comprehensive treatise on astronomy. The Hadith, the accountof words and actions attributed to Muhammad, mentions that God alone knowsthe future, and implies that man should not attempt to predict it.Additionally, it was thought that inaccurate forecasts could have veryserious consequences (Student Exhibition, 1998). The activities ofMuslim astronomers during this time period included the reinvestigation ofthe position of the solar apogee, the motion of precession, and the size ofthe solar equation, among other things, all ideas related to theimprovements in the Islamic observational methods. References Ahmad, Aminuddin. They did not simply transmit ancient knowledge, they created a new one . However, a few Greeks had reached, almost suddenly, extraordinary heights. RetrievedMarch 13, 2 1 from the World Wide Web:http://hps.cam.ac.uk/starry/isaslabe.html. Greek astronomy and its products reached Islam by various routes,on some of which it was subjected to significant modifications. Conclusion The result of the extensive efforts made by the Islamic community toconfront the challenge of the presence of various philosophies and sciencesof antiquity and to understand and digest them in its own terms andaccording to its own world view was the translation of a vast corpus ofwritings into Arabic (IAD). The second half of the eighth century produced several keyhistorical figures. Astronomy under Al-Ma'mun developed in two ways: one school retainedthe majority of the Indian Sindhind tradition, supplementing it withIranian and Ptolemaic works, and the other accepted the models of Ptolemaicastronomy but adjusted the parameters in accordance with its ownobservations. Kennedy, E.S. These astronomers were sometimes employed by the mosques astime keepers and, therefore, perceived by society as religiousfunctionaries of the mosques. The greatest astronomer of the era was Al-Battani. The Quaransuggests that there are signs in nature for man to read, and astronomy andastrology in the history of Islam were once regarded as having a higherspiritual purpose in contemplating the universe. . Recent research has revealed that of all the Arabic astronomicalwritings, the theoretical analysis of Ptolemy's Almagest and the PlanetaryHypothesis was probably the most original research in medieval Arabicastronomy (Saliba, 1973). Near the end of the eighth century and duringthe ninth century, most important Greek texts in the sciences had beensuccessfully translated into Arabic. Al-Ma'mun combined in a unique way free thought and intolerance forthose who did not support his views. Al-Kwarizmi's astronomicaltables were edited and revised by Maslama ibn Ahmed, who also wrote acommentary on Ptolemy's Planisphere (Ead).The Islamic Influence in Europe The Muslims gained two footholds in Europe, Spain and Sicily, whichenjoyed a period of corresponding intellectual splendor, which correspondedto that of the Eastern Islamic empire. In the first half of the ninth century, Al-Ma'mun's contributionsoccurred, as previously discussed. Abd-Al-Rahman made his way to Spainin the eighth century and initiated the intellectual movement which madeCordova a leading center of world culture. In response to this confusion, Al-Ma'mun inaugurated aprogram of careful translations of Greek and Syrian texts, a modernizationof the Sindhind tradition, as well as making many new observations, leadingto adjustments of the Ptolemaic parameters (Pingree, 1973). The latter's work contributed to an understanding of the origin andtransmission of astrological doctrines (Kennedy & Pingree, 1971). 16). Journal of the American Oriental Society, 32-23. Astrology wastreated more as a commodity to be regulated in the marketplace than as auseful science (Saliba 1994). Despite this contact with the East, Syrian astronomyappears to have been predominately Ptolemaic (Pingree, 1973). The Muslims integrated theastronomical traditions of the Indians, Persians, the ancient near east,and especially the Greeks into a synthesis which began to chart a newchapter in the history of astronomy from the eighth century onward (IAL).The unification of the tribes of Arabia into a powerful nation, includingPersia, Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, the whole North Africa,Gibraltar, and Spain created a vast intellectual empire (Ead). Additionally, Al-Khwarzmi createdthe first Muslim astronomical and trigonometric tables containing the sinefunction and the tangent. Theeighth and ninth centuries involved the period of consolidation of theMuslim people, and the real rise of Muslim scholarship occurred in theninth and tenth centuries (Al-Daffa', 1977). His reign, as well as that ofhis two successors, spanning the eighth, ninth, and tenth centuries, wasthe height of Muslim rule in the west. (1977). All the new thoughts and discoveries were published in Arabic,the language of the Quran was the international vehicle of scientificprogress, and the excellence of Muslim science was established. Islamic astronomers reexamined these parameters, correctedPtolemy's basic values, and developed the then commonly used values(Saliba, 1994). The astronomical computationsupon which Mashallah based his predictions were made by utilizing one ofthe royal astronomical canons promulgated by the Sasanian dynasty of Iran.Since no pre-Islamic Iranian astronomical documents exist, this has made itpossible to infer a good deal of information regarding Sasanian astronomy(Kennedy & Pingree, 1971). The work of writers in the sixth and seventh centuries indicates thatsufficient knowledge of astronomy existed to cast horoscopes, and it isvirtually certain that a Syriac version of the Handy Tables existed. Islam,Knowledge, and Science: Astronomy. This distinction contributed to astronomy becoming a subjectworthy of teaching in schools, where religion and law had previously beenthe only subjects of primary importance (Saliba, 1994).Survival of Astrology Evidence indicates that while Islamic communities of this era did notcondone the practice of astrology, they did tolerate it. Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi compiled anillustrated catalogue of stars based on his own observations, and isreputed as one of the leading astronomers. Surviving eighth century writings from Baghdadand Damascus indicate that the astrolabe was widely used throughout theArab world at this time. Examining the scope of influence requires looking at thosecenters of astronomical studies which influenced astronomers who wrote inArabic, including Byzantium, Syria, Sasanian Iran, and India (Pingree,1973). Saliba, George. This work was significant because it stimulated a new kindof theoretical research , questioning the adequacy of the methodologyemployed by Ptolemy, and resulting in refined methodology and instruments.Additionally, new genres of astronomical literature appeared, such ascommentaries on the Almagest (Saliba, 1994).The Astrolabe Many astronomical tools were developed by the Muslims to assist inobservation, the most famous of which is the astrolabe, a versatile tool asan astronomical calculating device. Oldlearning was infused with a new vigor, and the intellectual freedom ofMuslims stimulated the intense search for knowledge and science (Ead). For instance, "Verily God knows the secrets of the heavensand the earth and God sees well all that ye do" (Quran 65:18). New York:New York University Press. (1962). The eighth, ninth, and tenth centuries were a period duringwhich astronomy and Islam contributed to one another's development,advancement, and refinement in the medieval Islamic world. It isalso likely that a Syriac translation of Ptolemy's Syntaxes existed sincesome of the Arabic versions are said to have been made from that language.Late in the eighth century, came the chief astrologer of the Caliph al-Mahdi, Theophilus, a man learned in Greek, in Syriac, and in Arabic,indicating the existence of astronomy in Syria and an acquaintance withIndian material. Journal of theAmerican Oriental Society, 487-5 2. Royal Cannons were created aftercomparing Indian texts to Ptolemy's work, and, surprisingly, the Indiantext was found to be superior. Pingree, David. This revolutionized the study of mathematics and madepossible the great achievements of Muslim mathematicians (Ahmad). Astronomy and Astrology in the Islamic CultureOverview The Muslim expression for the science of the stars initially referredto both astrology and astronomy. Islamic Impact on Astronomy's DevelopmentOverview Islam is essentially a religion based on the surrender to God who isOne and considers itself to be not an innovation but a reassertion of theuniversal truth of all revelation, which is God's Oneness. Whilescholars used other languages, the works written in other languagescontained nothing new. For Ptolemy it wassufficient to produce mathematical models that are capable of describingthe planetary motion in longitude and in latitude, but for later Muslimastronomers, harmony between the physical and the mathematical worlds wasessential. The House of Wisdom was established by the great caliph Al-Ma'mun, a great scholar, philosopher and theologian. He went to great lengths to obtainGreek manuscripts and ordered translations of those manuscripts. Ibrahim al-Fazari was the first Muslim to constructastrolabes and wrote poetry on the astrolabe, the armillary spheres, aswell as on the calendar. This concept violates the principlethat any celestial motion must be a combination of uniform circularmotions. Sicily was a meeting point between two culturalareas; therefore, it became a natural medium for transmitting ancient Greekand medieval culture. This conflict between the foreignsciences and religion led to a reformulation of a new astronomy that wasdistinctly Islamic, patronized by the mosque and not the palace, where thepursuit of theoretical research could go on less hampered by the pitfallsand stigma of astrology. The earliest surviving Islamic astrolabes datefrom the ninth century, and they are of such fine craftsmanship and qualitythat they certainly represent a continuing tradition as opposed to a newactivity (Eagleton 1999). Additionally, the tradition of the observatory grew and continued inBaghdad and Damascus under Al-Ma'mun, with the instruments invented by theGreeks. The Iranians were familiar with Ptolemy's Syntaxsis, as well as withGreek and Indian astrological texts. The majority of the mathematical discoveries of theMuslims came about because of Islam. Hasib was one of the greatest astronomers of this period. He compiled a catalogue of the stars, determined variousastronomical coefficients with great accuracy, discovered the motion of thesolar apsides, and made an elaborate astronomical treatise including sines,tangents and cosines, widely authoritative for centuries to come (Ead).His work had a considerable influence not only on astronomy in the Muslimworld but also on the development of astronomy and spherical trigonometryin Europe during the Middle Ages and the beginning of the Renaissance (Al-Daffa', 1977). The rise of Muslim science began after the life of theprophet Mohammed and the beginning of Islam in the seventh century. Knowledge of various cultures was assimilated and the Arabiclanguage was adopted. Retrieved March 11, 2 1 fromthe World Wide Web:http://www.mhs.ox.ac.uk/students/97to98/exhibits/pg_astro.htm. While astrologysurvived, leading astronomers attempted to distinguish their work from thatof astrology, since the latter had inherently polytheistic attributes andcontradicted the monotheistic nature of the Islamic faith. It wasless accurate than direct mathematical calculations but provided answersmuch more expeditiously. The Greek Influence on Early IslamicMathematical Astronomy. (1998). Most astronomers who were producing original astronomical results,worked mostly in theoretical astronomy and had very little to do withastrology. An important application of astronomy in Islam was the timekeepingfor the five daily prayers, defined according to the position of the sunmoving from east to west (Ahmad). Anotherexample is, "Do not the unbeliever see that the heavens and the earth werejoined together (as one unit of creation), before we clove them asunder:We made from water every living thing. Will they not believe?" (Quran21:3 ) (Ahmad). By the tenth century, the predominance of Ptolemy wasvirtually secured, and the Iranian and Indian texts were only of historicalinterest. A tremendous amount of original work was done byMuslim astronomers in this era which would influence work in this field forcenturies. Scholars translated the works of Ptolemy, Euclid,Aristotle, and many other great Greek texts into Arabic. His patronage resulted in a vast arrayof astronomical observations, tables of planetary motions were compiled,the obliquity of the ecliptic determined, and geodetic measurements weremade. (Ed.) History of Islamic Science. Lines ofFaith: Instruments and Religious Practice in Islam:Astrology and Astronomy. Muslim scholars dedicated themselves tofixing a canon based primarily on the Quran, their sacred writing, thesource of all knowledge, and the revelation of God. Crucial steps weremade in the field of trigonometry in the course of computing astronomicaltables (Ead). Historical Horoscopes. During the eighth, ninth, and tenth centuries, it is practicallyimpossible to separate mathematics from astronomy. Lavish subsidies were granted toscholars, free schools were established in the capital, and the Universityof Cordova became a place of pre-eminence among the educationalinstitutions of the world. Ibrahim al-Fazari is reputed to have been thefirst Muslim to construct astrolabes (Ead).The Quest for Knowledge and Applying Astronomy in Muslim Life The rise of Islam provided the Arabs with a bold world-view and setbefore them the cultural stage of the ancient world with all of itsscientific and cultural treasures. Sahl Al-Tabari provided the first Arabictranslation of the Almagest during this period as well (Ead). In Islam, the issue of the unity of theCreator led to a conflict in matters concerning such things as the eternityof the world, the problem of free will, and predestination. TheIranians were heirs of Greek astronomy through both Greece and India, butthey still focused largely on pragmatic methods and astrologically usefulresults rather than on theoretical models of the heavens (Pingree, 1973).Al-Ma'mun and the The House of Wisdom The city of Baghdad became a prominent center of learning around 8 AD. TheMuslims also applied their astronomical knowledge to questions of thecalendar (ISL).Major Figures in the Development of Islamic Astronomy The vast majority of the work in the eighth, ninth and tenthcenturies, particularly original work, in the field of astronomy was doneby Muslims. Very close relationships existed between Muslimtrigonometry and astronomy, together with their effects on later works byEuropean scholars, have impacted modern astronomy (Al-Daffa' (1977). TheMuslims also accomplished some scholarly work that carried mathematics farbeyond the limits reached by the Greeks; this was especially true in theareas of algebra and trigonometry. ISL Software, makers of the WinAlim Islamic Database. A great deal of attention was paid to astronomicalinstruments during this period as well. Based on the book, Introduction to the History of Science, by GeorgeSarton. This instrument was used to seekanswers to astrological, calendrical, and meteorological questions. Astronomers attempted toestablish parameters on the basis of new observations, and their new valueof precession is Indian, and their new mean motions of the planets islargely Ptolemy's corrected for the new length of a tropical year(Pingree, 1973). The Ptolemaic model for the planets assumes that the epicycle centersof those planets move on a circle, called the deferent, whose center doesnot coincide with the earth, and that they describe equal angles around yetanother center, called the equant. Ibn Amajur compiled astronomical tables and was oneof the best Muslim observers. Learning is portrayed as the highest religious activity;therefore, wherever the message of the Quran was accepted and understood,the quest for knowledge flourished (IAD). But one might speak also, though in a different sense, of an Arabic miracle. That is what we call the Greek miracle. It was popularuntil the fifteenth century, influencing not only Muslim work, but alsolater Christian and Jewish astronomers. One of the reasons for the development ofscience here was likely due to God's commandment to explore the laws ofnature (Ahmad).The Study of Mathematics and the Question of Celestial Motion Both the Persian and the Indian culture impacted Islam'sencouragement into thinking. A History of Arabic Astronomy. Evenmathematical vocabulary such as "algebra" and "algorithm" are borrowingsfrom Arabic words, which were later translated into Latin (Ahmad). The major work achieved during the ninth and tenth centuries was notunrelated to the development of planetary theories. This issue exercised Muslim astronomers. The Almagest, whose name in English reveals the Arabicorigin of its Latin translation, was thoroughly studied and criticized byastronomers of both the eastern and western lands of the Islamic empire(ISL). Virtually everymathematician was also an astrologer or an astronomer. However,the Greek legacy did not immediately dominate without a struggle withnative sciences. The equant problem was a contradiction between those two worlds (Saliba, 1994).The Melting Pot of Arabic Writers The influence of Greek astronomy upon the Arabs is furthercomplicated by the fact that this Hellenistic tradition had alreadyinfluenced other cultural traditions that contributed to the development ofscience in the area that the Arabic language became the dominant means ofcommunication. The most critical feature of this new astronomywas its responsiveness to the social environment (Saliba 1994).Islamic Acceptance of Astronomers The Arabic term Ilm al-nujum encapsules both astrology and astronomy,demonstrating their close ties in the medieval Islamic world. Qusta ibn Luqa wrote an importanttreatise on spherical astrolabes, and Hamid ibn Ali because a famousconstructor of astrolabes. The religious tenants of Islam did not hinder scientific and mathematicaldevelopment, rather they encouraged exploration of the laws of sciencethrough scientific proof in a monotheistic context. (1973). During the seventh century, an Indian Muslimmathematician developed the symbol "cipher" or zero and the system ofplaced notation. When more Ptolemaic ideas were added inthe eighth and ninth centuries, Islamic astronomers turned their attentionto the areas where these Greco-Syrian, Greco-Iranian, Greco-Indian, andPtolemaic Byzantine traditions conflicted. Earlyin the ninth century, a new field of thought called astronomy wasintroduced when math stimulated the craving for answers to the question ofcelestial motion. Greek texts had a tremendous, lastinginfluence on the development of medieval Islamic astronomy, particularlythe work done by Ptolemy. The Religion of Islam.Retrieved March 1 , 2 1 from the World Wide Web:http://www.templemount.org/islamiad.html. (2 ).
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