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SRI LANKA.
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The rise and fall of leadership groups.... More...
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Paper Abstract:
The rise and fall of leadership groups. Sri Lankan political parties after independence. United National Party (UNP) and the Sri Lankan Freedom Party (SLFP). Minority activism and rise of smaller parties. The Tamil United Liberation Front (TULF) and demands for separate statehood. Rise of extremist political groups. Terrorist groups. Discusses themes of exclusivity and win-lose dynamics.

Paper Introduction:
Sri Lanka The Rise & Fall of Leadership Groups INTRODUCTION: SRI LANKAN POLITICAL PARTIES More than five decades of independence for Sri Lanka, formerly Ceylon, has witnessed the rise of a political system with basically stable political parties. Before the 1980s two major parties formed to create a two-party political system consisting of the United National Party (UPN) and the Sri Lanka Freedom Party (SLFP). After the 1980s, internal factions in these parties and increasing minority activism gave rise to a number of parties. Some of these are factions within the two main parties, while others are independent of them or represent the extreme. The UNP came into ex

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Available: http://members.tripod.com/~hettiarachchi/party.html, 1-5.Anonymous. Collaboration (solve-solve) . Safe Environments . This seems tosupport the above assumptions of inclusivity theory. Recently, after a period of seven years of no new negotiations, theSri Lankan government agreed to meet with the leaders of the LTTE in orderto negotiate a peace settlement. Recent peace negotiations aim at a reduction of ethnic tensions andsubsequent terrorism in Sri Lanka, but the government and politicalparadigm in Sri Lanka must undergo radical modification before they can beeliminated and an end can be put to two decades of ethnic, class, and civilwar for legal-political control. As Thiessen and McMahon (1999) argue, the win-lose proposition ofnegotiation leads to exactly the scenario in politics that we have seenboth historically and currently in the political arena of Sri Lanka: Negotiation based on low disclosure levels results in vague ideas about reservation and aspiration levels of other parties and often misinterpretation of the parties' real interests and needs. As with each new leadership that comes to powerthe LTTE was provided incentive to negotiate because of different views ofparty leaders. While thiswill cost each side it is a more positive step for all stakeholders asopposed to the competition level or win-lose mentality that has longdominated Sri Lankan politics. Asreported in the South China Morning Post, "The peace process, hailed as thebest chance for Sri Lanka, carried deadly risks and poses excruciatingdilemmas for all involved. The recent crackdown on terrorism and the newly elected SriLanka UNP administration may have found the magnet issue that brings allstakeholders to the negotiation table for the first time in seven years-enormous expenditures in terms of economics and human lives due to theinability to negotiate in a collaborative manner. This paradigm is also present in the present of ethnicconflict and also remains a hangover from Western imperialist policies andcolonization. This is because the conflict interaction negotiationtheory demonstrates a hierarchical bias, where there is an increase inoutflow of general resources from the bottom level up in the hierarchy.This model of conflict theory is presented in its hierarchical form below: . They have used bombs, assassinations, and otherterrorist forms of negotiation for two decades. Confrontation (neutral) . M. The exclusionary policies and win-lose mentality of negotiationdemonstrated by the Sinhalese politicians and the fierce resistance andterrorism it provoked from the LTTE has cost Sri Lanka and its peopledearly over the last two decades. These include the CeylonWorker's Congress (CWC) and the Sri Lanka Muslim Congress (SLMC).CENTRAL ANALYTICAL THEME Both the exclusivity and the win-lose dynamic of the governingmentality in the traditional ruling parties in Sri Lanka are part of thecentral analytical theme that will be explored in this research. While the UNP is free-market oriented theSLFP has adopted a course of economic self-sufficiency, nationalization ofmajor enterprises, creation of a comprehensive welfare state,redistribution of wealth, and a nonaligned foreign policy favoring closeties with socialist nations (Political, 2 2, 2). This is true on both sides of the conflict inSri Lanka" (2 2, 2). In the past two decades Sri Lankanpolitics has also seen the birth of Marxist parties. Appeasement (lose-win) . Two decades of civil war, brutal actsof violence on both sides of the debate, and a political dynamic thatincludes exclusion and win-lose mentality as its main pillars have crippledthe economy, been responsible for the deaths of hundreds of thousands ofcivilians, and have led to the assassination of many political leaders andofficials. War-torn Sri Lanka in transition. Nevertheless, journalists and politicalobservers are doubtful that a lasting peace agreement can be achieved. Sri Lanka: The politics of caste. Both the Tamils and the Sinhalese exhibit differentreligions, languages, and manners. These concessions would be an example of the compromise level ofthe hierarchy of conflict interaction. As noted in The LankaAcademic (2 2), "Caste has always been a factor in Sri Lanka's politicsand not only among the Tamils. The Tigers are desperate to protect the rest of their money, which is mainly collected from sympathizers abroad. (2 2). All Stakeholder Meetings . South China Morning Post, 18-19. P. While amajority of onlookers and political analysts fault the win-lose negotiatingmentality and the exclusionary policies of the government for thesetensions, others are quick to condemn the brutal and bloody terroristtactics of the LTTE. In essence, one of the reasons why terrorist groups exist in SriLanka is not because of conflicts between groups of people as much as itstems from the political paradigm of exclusion, brutality, and a win-losementality. Can the LTTE cope with that? There are other minor parties that attempt to play arole in the legal-political system in Sri Lanka. The Statesman, 1-3.Thiessen, E. These are moreresource draining than the collaboration (solve-solve) level of thehierarchy. (Sep 19, 2 2). Commonway theories on war and peace. Avoidance (loss) (Systemic, 2 2, 1) The political scenario in Sri Lanka demonstrates several of theselevels of the systemic hierarchy of conflict interaction. One of the worst blows to the LTTE from making the list wasa freeze on its more than $4 billion in assets: In most capitals the Tiger's sources of money are being tracked down and their bank accounts frozen. Bandaranaike (Political, 2 2, 1). . Asia: The wounded Tigers; Sri Lanka's civil war. This component of inclusivity theory focuses on ethnicdifferences. Available: http://www.commonway.org/Cwitem~4-3-3.htm, 1-3.Anonymous. By theearly 195 s Senanayake, who served as Sri Lanka's first Prime Minister,broke away from the UNP and formed the Sri Lanka Freedom Party (SLFP).Like modern day political parties in Sri Lanka, these parties oftenconsisted of factions with differing attitudes and ideas and hostile toeach other. They need to strike a deal with the Sri Lankan government that will restore some respectability to their organization (Civil War, 2 2, 39).The main source of money for the LTTE cause comes from sympathizers wholive abroad. The Economist, 363(8268): 15.Anonymous. This is because inclusivitytheory offers a worldview that tries to eliminate conflict and disparitiesby removing the concept of "other" from political leadership ornegotiation. In combination with the exclusionary aspect of the political dynamicin Sri Lanka is the aspect of a win-lose mentality of conflict andnegotiation. Terrorism is often a phenomenon that accompanies ethnicconflict, as is the case in India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, and the MiddleEast. We can see in Sri Lanka that the exclusionary policies of thegovernment and the brutal methods used to maintain this exclusion createdsupport for extremism while draining the Sri Lankan economy. Thegroup aimed at preserving the Sinhala culture and its interests. Single Issue Meetings . (Oct 2, 2 2). Thisanalysis will now look at two theoretical models of negotiation andpolitical leadership known as conflict interaction negotiation theory andinclusivity theory and apply them to the real situation of Sri Lankanpolitics.THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES Inclusivity theory is perfectly suited to the conflict in Sri Lanka,at least from a theoretical perspective. In theory, if the collaboration level of conflict negotiationcan be achieved in reality then fewer resources will be expended due toconflict. While theseinclusivity theory assumptions may prove viable for the political situationin Sri Lanka, there is another aspect of inclusivity theory that alsoapplies. As late as 1983 thegovernment is accused of maintaining pogroms against thousands of Tamils.It is this win-lose mentality and these kinds of exclusionary and brutalpolicies that led to the rise of the LTTE. Beyond Win-Win in cyberspace. What led to the support ofextremism and violence as exhibited by the LTTE, however, had to do withthe Sinhala political leaders use of legislative and administrativemeasures to achieve hegemony. The Tiger comes out of his lair. and Saravanamuttu, P. Another major factor was the December 2 1 election of the UNP ledby Ranil Wickremesinghe. However, ever this group saw a factionsplit off on its own, the New Equal Society Party (NSSP). (2 2). In the decades to follow there would be many parties to follow inthe footsteps of the UPN and SLFP. While it will costs each side acertain measure of expenditure, it may result in an eventual peacesettlement that provides inclusion and helps foster a higher level ofconflict negotiation between all stakeholders, the collaboration level. (Jan 12, 2 2). Reconciliation . Atthe present time the win-lose method of negotiation among stakeholders isdefeating the purposes of all stakeholders, with devastating results formany innocent civilians. As Colombo's National PeaceCouncil lawyer Jehan Perera argues, "Every leader who has negotiated withthe Tamils has been killed. After the 198 s, internal factionsin these parties and increasing minority activism gave rise to a number ofparties. According to Commonway (2 2), "Ethnic conflict must betranscended. The Tamils since that time for all intents andpurposes, have been excluded from a significant role in the legal-politicalprocess. As noted by Commonway, "Inclusivity means the recognitionthat all beings are inextricably linked to each other. A perfect example of this theory in practice is observable in therecent concessions by both the UNP party and the LTTE. The paradigm of 'ethnicity' must be shifted in a way thathonors everyone's history. Available: http://home.att.net/~Choragus/library/change_theories.htm, 1-4.Bandaranaike, S. (Apr 13, 2 2). The SLFP has a leftist character in comparison to the UNP moderateright leanings. Everyone has treated the LTTE with suspicion,distrust, hostility. According to Commonway, "Most conflict is maintained notbecause groups of people opposed each other, but because very small groupsof men, backed up by guns, claim to speak for 'the people'. Such a program of modification to achieve at a policy of inclusivityin government would need to entail the following components according toCommonway (2 2): . As the South Morning ChinaPost (2 2) reports, the current prime minister and president risk enormousthreat by negotiating with the LTTE: "Prime Minister Ranil Wickremesingherisks assassination or the dissolution of his government. By the early 198 spolitical tensions escalated and all of the TULF legislators walked out ofParliament for refusing to swear to an oath that made them renounceseparate statehood. A more appropriate levelwould be the compromise level where both sides lose something. While part of the UNP Bandaranaike maintained a factionknown as the Sinhala Maha Sabha which he carried with hi, to the SLFP. It means that regardless ofhow many political divisions there may be, recognition of each is needed toprevent exclusionary policies that harm all parties. TheLTTE is responsible for assassinating virtually ever political leader thathas attempted to diminish their role in or exclude them from the legal-political process. However, caste conflict anddecades of ethnic tensions that resulted in exclusionary policies enactedby the majority ethnic group against the minority ethnic group in Sri Lankaare powerfully entrenched in the legal-political environment. When Wickremesinghe was elected, a one month cease-fire wascalled in the hope of negotiations, while the government offered an olivebranch by lifting bans on goods destined for lands controlled by the LTTE.The LTTE has abandoned its position of wanting full independence andseparate statehood in favor of adopting a policy that settles for self-determination and autonomy. The UNP came into existence in 1946, championed and led by DonStephen Senanayake and S.W.R.D. Because of the U.S. I think that is the majorchallenge of transformation on the Tamil side" (War-Torn, 2 2, 18). This government has more or less treated them withkindness. While it is too early to tell about theoutcome of such negotiations, this research proves how valuable suchtheories can be when applied to real world conflicts in need of resolution. As Commonway (2 2) argues, "Many of the mostvirulent ethnic conflicts are a result of the West's history ofcolonization" (2). The partyadopted a platform that was bolstered by nonrevolutionary socialism and aSinhala-only language policy. Until such a political paradigm is modified toinclude zero tolerance for violence and terrorism by any party or faction,it is unlikely inclusivity theory can be adapted to Sri Lankan politics. and McMahon, J. Within the SLFP other factionsdeveloped that gave rise to the Sri Lanka People's Party (SLPP) and thePeople's Democratic Party (PDP). Sir Lanka: The political party system. It is apparent why sucha platform would be more popular with the poor and working class massesthan those of the UPN party that appeals to a more capitalist elitesegment. Sri Lanka The Rise & Fall of Leadership Groups INTRODUCTION: SRI LANKAN POLITICAL PARTIES More than five decades of independence for Sri Lanka, formerlyCeylon, has witnessed the rise of a political system with basically stablepolitical parties. (Sep 29, 2 2). LTTE and peace. ADR Cyberweek, 1-3.Wickremesinghe, R. Common Ground Empowered Dialogue . Forced & Spiritual Consensus . The Economist, 362(8255): 39-4 .Anonymous. The Lanka Sama SamajaParty (LSSP) was established in 1935, but had no members in Parliament bythe late 198 s (Politics, 2 2, 3). The animosity that arose from this exclusion of the Tamils in thelegal-political process paved the way for the rise of extremist politicalgroups like the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE). This worksonly because the current political paradigm recognizes 'men with guns' aslegitimate national powers. But if you look at it, the leaders who havebeen killed are those who thought they could marginalize the LTTE. Waron Terrorism, mainly supported by the U.N. PresidentChandrika Kumaratunga faces constitutional change which could slash herpowers" (War-Torn 18). However, it was the Sinhalese elitethat replaced British leaders, a group who felt they were the trueinhabitants of the island and in the majority. One cannot understand the full extent of the exclusion in SriLankan politics without considering the caste system which is responsiblefor legal-political exclusion among other policies. By 1977the Tamil United Liberation Front (TULF) had emerged, a party that demandedfull independence and separate statehood in the north and east and on theisland of Tamil Eelam (Bandaranaike, 2 2, 1). Many argue thatpart of the reason for this is the lack of consideration by Britishauthorities who departed in 1948 to understand or provide for the multi-ethnic nature of the country in the creation of the unitary constitution.The British failed to understand the importance of the island being twonations, one of the Sinhalese in the south and west and of the Tamils inthe north and east. TheLTTE has assassinated not only government politicians, but all Tamilpoliticians. While this will costs both sides, thecompromise level will allow for stakeholders in the political arena in SriLanka to aspire to a higher level of the hierarchy where everyone benefits,the collaboration level. Library of Congress. Failure to do so will likelyresult in more violence on both sides of the conflict with little abatementof ethnic or class conflicts.CONCLUSION Political leaders of all Sri Lankan parties and factions andmillions of Tamil, Sinhalese, Muslim and other Sri Lankans understand theenormous expenditures that result from an inability to peacefully negotiatein the legal-political environment. Forgiveness (2-3)The recent willingness of the leaders of the LTTE and the newly elected SriLankan UNP leaders to negotiate for the first time in seven years ofsilence is a step in the right direction that encompasses several of theserecommendations. Because of thislinkage, all attempts to 'defeat' the other are ultimately self-defeating"(2 2, 1). This is because the country has beenengaged in an often bloody and brutal civil war for the past two decadesthat have taken more than 65, lives (War-Torn, 2 2, 1). History shows that ethnic conflicts can go onfor decades, even centuries" (1). (2)The current leadership of Sri Lanka must heed such theories as inclusivityand conflict interaction negotiation in order to reap the potentialbenefits of being able to arrive at a peaceful settlement to the conflictsbetween political stakeholders in Sri Lanka that have kept the countryembroiled in civil war for two decades. Certainly ethnic conflict has existed inSri Lanka between the Sinhalese and Tamils for decades as surely as it hasin the Middle East between Arabs and Israelis. The Sri Lankan Tamils have had a history of supporting their ownparty candidates and issues in elections over the other parties. We now come to one of the more complex parties within Sri Lankanpolitics. Parties either agree to a sub-optimal conclusion or miss finding a mutually satisfactory outcome, even when it was actually achievable. Prime MinisterWickremesinghe's willingness to lift the bad on goods destined for LTTEcontrolled lands is comparable to the LTTE abandoning their demand forseparate statehood and full independence in favor of self-determination andautonomy. For example, theresources of the nation have been drained because it has relied upon thecompetition, the confrontation, and the avoidance levels of the hierarchyin negotiations among political parties and factions. and NATO, the LTTE was listed bythe Bush Administration as one on a list of various terroristorganizations. The war hasalso been devastating the Sri Lanka's economy which has lowered the qualityof life for its inhabitants and prevented the government from supplying theneeds of the people. The Lanka Academic, 3(179): 1-3.Anonymous. Conflict interaction negotiation theory is different fromthe traditional win-win goal oriented object of decision-making models ofconflict theory. Magnet Issues (Impetus to bring all parties to the table) . The impact from a worldwide crackdown on terrorism is not the onlydriving factor that pushed the government and LTTE to the negotiationstable. (Nov 11, 1999). Competition (win-lose) . This in turn has caused one leadership group to riseas another falls, but the main problem is the tension and violence thatexist between the Sinhalese majority and the Tamil minority. A Library of Congress document holds by the 197 s, the UPN was"organized around power personalities and politically influential familiesrather than a consistent ideology or a strong party organization"(Political, 2 2, 2). They were able to do so because of theirconsiderable numbers in Parliament. Measures used by the Sinhala politicians included:disenfranchisement of hundreds of thousands of Tamils, laws that madeSinhala the only official language of the island and, state-fundedcolonization of the Tamil homeland in the north east. Some of these are factions within the two main parties, whileothers are independent of them or represent the extreme. Unless inclusivity andconflict interaction negotiation theory are incorporated by stakeholdersinto proposed peace negotiations, it is likely the historical tensions ofclass and ethnicity that have kept peaceful solutions from being achievedin Sri Lanka will continue. The historical and contemporary political scenario in Sri Lankasince independence has been fraught with violence and is witness to therise and fall of various parties and political factions. (2 2). Systemic hierarchy of conflict interactions. While TULF wouldeventually work for an autonomous state within the framework of theConstitution, the LTTE militant faction resorted to terrorism as a means ofnegotiation. Tackling issues individually, as in a one-dimensional tug-of-war, inevitably leaves value on the table-unclaimed by any party. Before the 198 s two major parties formed to create atwo-party political system consisting of the United National Party (UPN)and the Sri Lanka Freedom Party (SLFP). Through much of contemporary historyhowever it has been the politics that dare not speak its name" (1). Advocacy of the Whole. With respect to the reality of the situation in Sri Lankan politics,including decades of class and ethnic conflict, the modification ofpolitical policy and institutional structures may have to begin in a lowerlevel of the conflict negotiation hierarchy. Inclusivity does not mean homogeneity. ReferencesAnonymous. Compromise (lose-lose) . Anyone who challenges their leadership is eliminated"(Wickremesinghe and Saravanamuttu, 2 2, 18). One of the major driving factors behindthe negotiations comes from the needs of the LTTE. To its credit, when Sri Lanka was ruled by British forces such apolitical paradigm was modeled to those who came to rule when Britishforces left without leaving in tact a political paradigm that accounted fordisparate ethnic cultures.

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