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POLITICAL THEORIES OF JEAN-JACQUES ROUSSEAU.
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Paper Abstract:
Discusses four of his works. Contends Rousseau's political philosophy was motivated more by his passions and emotions than by reason and logic. Rousseau's concept of government, direct participation of general public in the governmental process, his negative view of the arts and sciences. Emphasis on man's natural state. Concept of the general will. Social contract.
Paper Introduction:
This research study will provide an analysis of the political theories of Jean-Jacques Rousseau by discussing four of his works: Discourse of the Sciences and the Arts (1750), Discourse on the Origin of Inequality (1754), Discourse on Political Economy (1755), and his seminal work of political theory, On the Social Contract published in 1762. As these works illustrate, Rousseau's political philosophy was motivated more by his passions and emotions than by reason and logic. He was more interested in describing what the ideal state should be than detailing a structure of how this could be achieved. To Rousseau, government was a necessity for the daily execution of civil law, but the direct participation of all members of society was equally important. Rousseau's philosophy also reflects his status in society; he was the first modern political writer who was not a mem
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16 ). Rousseau, however,does warn men to be constantly watchful of their leaders, and to rebel orrevolt against them when their rightful liberties are in danger. In public association, all men actin unity. Whatchanged this idyllic state was the introduction of private property. But to follow the general will one must know it, and above all, Properly distinguish it from the private will, beginning with oneself....Since one must be free in order to will, another no less formidable Difficulty is how to secure both the public liberty and the authority of the government (p. In that way, the Social Contract will trulyexpress the free will of citizens. According to Rousseau, this "was the great art of the governments ofold" (p. This occurs when survival by instinct in the natural state isno longer possible or even desirable. In this manner, "every legitimate government isrepublican" (p. It is the sum of each individual's will thatforms the general will in a healthy state. To prevent this from happening, Rousseau offers a method todifferentiate between different kinds of decisions. It is now a matter ofgiving it movement and will through legislation"(P. Thus his politicalwritings centered more on theory than on practice. 12). How to act well is more essential to human happiness that thearts and sciences and ensuing luxury offer. Each man has his own will that expresseswhat is best for him as an individual. Thus, while unanimity is the more desirable goal, in certain situations itcan be ignored. 116). Government, as he sees it, istemporary in that it acts as an agent of the general will. Thisconcept had a profound influence on the French Revolution. His belief in thedeath penalty may be viewed as a totalitarian view, which appears tocontradict his basic belief than men must be ready to rebel and revolt whennecessary.However, it more likely could be interpreted as conservatism on Rousseau'spart; he believes in obedience to law and the rights of property as much ashe believes in individual liberty. Rousseau discusses three forms of liberty: natural, civil and moral.Natural liberty acts on instinct, not reason and depends on physicalstrength for enforcement. He is not in favor of personal taxes or taxeson absolute necessities. Every state that is ruled by such laws is a republic "regardless ofthe form its administration may take" because it is the public interestthat is governing. This can be seen in his Discourse on the Moral Effects ofthe Arts and Sciences. The legislator's primary "duty is to conform the laws to the generalwill." In addition, the primary "rule" of the public economy is that theadministration should be in conformity with the laws" since this willensure that the state will be well governed. This research study will provide an analysis of the political theoriesof Jean-Jacques Rousseau by discussing four of his works: Discourse of theSciences and the Arts (175 ), Discourse on the Origin of Inequality (1754),Discourse on Political Economy (1755), and his seminal work of politicaltheory, On the Social Contract published in 1762. Limited discussion, however, can lead to the domination of one groupby another smaller group, and can mean the loss of both the General Willand liberty. 198). Many of these ideas can befound in the political makeup of contemporary governments.Conclusion Rousseau's early political writings revealed a romantic view ofmankind in a natural setting. He nowgives credence to the constructive role reason can play, when coupled withmorality. These "savages" however, were notevil since they were "ignorant of vice." In other words, just becauseprimitive man had no knowledge of goodness, it does not follow that he wasnecessarily evil. The need for government to "prevent extreme inequality of fortune" isalso stressed by Rousseau who contends that it is better for a governmentto prevent poverty than to build hospitals for the poor (p. In other words, men should pass from their state of nature to thecivil state, thereby substituting justice for instinct in their conduct.Thus Rousseau is not only arguing for individual liberty, but for thenecessity of social organization or a civil government. He does not,therefore, have to being together his conflicting ideas of freedom and theuse of force. 162). He was more interested indescribing what the ideal state should be than detailing a structure of howthis could be achieved. He argues that every form of injustice thatexists in society is the result of the control exercised by faultypolitical and intellectual influences on the natural, therefore healthy,impulses of natural man. 119). On thecontrary, he believed that authority and liberty must find a balance sothat men can live in a reasonable and ordered society with other menwithout giving up their liberty. He believes that a smaller state is preferable toa large one in order to reach unanimity in making decision. The misuse of time is a great evil. Rousseau, however, doesnot sufficiently draw the specific lines to his system of freedom withinthe social contract because he was more concerned with how the state ofinequality came to be, how it existed in his own time, and how it should bechanged. Also, when there is too much discussion and dissension,special interests can emerge which would lead to the decline of the state. 7 ). 151). During the Age of Enlightenment in which Rousseau was writing, thebirth of modern science, government and political philosophy took place.Philosophers rejected the dogmatism of previous times, and placed morevalue on the individual rights of citizens, on reason and progress than onreligion. Above allelse, Rousseau expounded the ideal of individual liberty which is revealedin all his writings. Rousseau moved from his early position that man was only happyin a state of nature where he had physical freedom, to a position thatposits that the state of nature cannot be moral or lawful, and therefore itis better for mankind to live in a lawful society as long as that societyguarantees freedom, equality and justice for all. The first and most important maxim of Legitimate or popular government...of a government that has the good of the populace for its object, is therefore,...to follow the general will in all things. Publicinterest or association on the other hand is concerned with everyone's self-interest, and calls for the formation of a social order of mutualadvantage. Ignorance was a virtue, and the pursuit ofscience and the arts was responsible for the ills and evils of society. Themajor problem is to discover how freedom is possible in a civil society. Inhis later work he developed more sophisticated views of society, and cameto believe that the source of true freedom was not to be found living innature, but in developing reason and morality which could only be obtainedthrough an agreed upon government by the people. Once society isestablished based on the general will, citizens are expected to follow thedictates of the majority. The natural world was more worthy of examination than thespiritual world. Akey principle of Rousseau's political theory is that politics and amoralityshould not be separated. The " dissolution of mores," Rousseau argues, "is a necessaryconsequence of luxury" (p. The Basic Political Writings. The will of the ruler, therefore,must aim at the common good. Natural liberty is limited, Rousseau contends, because it relies onhuman instinct, and would therefore be concerned with the "privateinterest," and not "public associations." Private interests are one-sidedrelationships, such as those between the slave and his master. Before Rousseau wrote The Social Contract, he wrote twoearlier discourses on the Origin of Political Inequality and on PoliticalEconomy, both of which lay the groundwork for the later, and moreinfluential Social Contract. Rousseau argues that there is no morality in nature. 127). Moral liberty,on the other hand, is civil liberty in that it is created by all members ofsociety. Then the subject matter about which a statute is enacted is general like the will that enacts it. He appears to be againstwhat today would be called heavy property taxes and inheritance taxes andeven the redistribution of wealth (property).He passionately argues that "the right of property is the most sacred ofall the rights of citizenship, and even more important in some respectsthan liberty itself..." (p. The arts, sciences and social institutions, arguedRousseau, should be banished because they take away individual freedom andindividuality. Unlikeearlier works, the Discourse on Political Economy did more than justcriticize the existing order; it developed a constructive theory of thestate. To Rousseau, the natural stateof man was far superior to the civilized materialistic state. The effectiveness of Rousseau's proposed society is somewhat dependenton its size for success. Luxury, born like them of idleness and man's vanity is one such. The Social Contract is basically acompact agreed to among men that defines membership in society; men give upsome of their physical freedom in exchange for security provided by a civilgovernment. 151). For crucial matters,it is desirable to get as close to general unity as possible. In place of such luxury,Rousseau pleads for a simpler, earlier time when nature was more valuedthan luxury. Although Political Economy deals with political government and notwith what is generally thought of as economic topics such as property,capital and wages, Rousseau does discuss some economic topics. Although Rousseau may appear to contradict himself at times, it mustbe kept in mind that he was writing about an ideal state, and notdeveloping a realistic plan that could be put into motion. Rousseau, then, holds thatmorality can only flourish when men live a simple, dutiful life. Once speech,reason and the notion of private property arose, the human race began tosteadily decline so that governments came into being to protect property,which led to the subjugation of its citizens. In the formof government that Rousseau proposes, morality and justice play a positiverole in man's survival. In opposition to the prevailing ideas of the Enlightenment thinkers,Rousseau believed that the simple and poor culture of the past, such asSparta, was a more positive model. 141). Civil liberty, with its rules and laws, arebased on reason, but not necessarily made by all citizens. He opposes this because it isin opposition to nature. The Discourse was written as a contest entry on the topic: "Has theRestoration of the Sciences and Arts Tended to Purify Morals?" He won thecontest although he took the negative position that the arts and scienceshad a corrupting effect on people and would lead to the destruction ofnatural freedom. In histaxation scheme, Rousseau addresses the problems of inequality by favoringtaxes on items whose use can be forbidden, such as the use of carriages,which resembles a luxury tax. Rousseau's adviceto governments and rulers is to make the laws beloved so that men will obeythem. A large stateis harder to manage; its organization is too bureaucratic, and there wouldbe less personal relations between people which would result in thenecessity for more laws. 35). As these worksillustrate, Rousseau's political philosophy was motivated more by hispassions and emotions than by reason and logic. His major concerns were liberty and morality. It is this act that I call a law (p. It is the permanent power of thepeople participating in the Social Contract. Intheir primitive, or natural state, men had no reason to come togetherthrough mutual need and to progress. This would not lead to tyranny because constantly renewingthe Social Contract would prevent tyranny. In the Social Contract, Rousseau succinctly summarizes this idea inwhat has become a famous epigram: "Man was born free, and everywhere he isin chains" (p. The concept of general will was first discussed by Rousseau in hisDiscourse on Political Economy. Rousseau also held that men must betaught to be virtuous, and it is the duty of government to teach virtue. Rule by the General Rule will be more difficultto maintain. Rousseau does find two principles that are "prior to reason" and fromcombining the two, "all the rules of natural right appear to me to flow"(p. Rousseau gives greater recognition to the importance of reasonthan in previous works which emphasized the importance of nature. The principles are that man will not resist his inner impulse ofcompassion, and will not harm another unless survival is involved. Since man knowsnature "so little" and agrees so poorly on the meaning of the word "law,"it is difficult to find a good definition of natural law, "As long as weare ignorant of natural man, it is futile for us to attempt to determinethe law he has received, or which is best suited to his constitution. When timeis short and immediate action is required, a simple majority is acceptable. Work Cited Rousseau, Jean-Jacques. Thinkingreplaces instinct as the source of action. To Rousseau, government was a necessity for thedaily execution of civil law, but the direct participation of all membersof society was equally important. The Social Contract offers even a more complex analysis of the stateand man's role in society than can be found in the Discourse on PoliticalEconomy. 14). Rousseau's philosophy also reflects hisstatus in society; he was the first modern political writer who was not amember of the elite class, and as such was excluded from automaticallyreceiving the benefits of the existing order. Men will obey the laws and be virtuous when their privatewill conforms with the general will. In his later Social Contract, Rousseau claims that"forced labor is less opposed to liberty than are taxes" (p. Collective action is more desirable for survival. His concerns are always with therelationship between law and morality, and the relationship betweenauthority and liberty Above all, Rousseau believed thatliberty and morality are supreme. He defines his concept of law as follows: ...when the entire populace enacts a statute concerning the entire populace, it considers Only itself, and if in that case a relationship is formed, it is between the entire object seen From one perspective and the entire object seen from another, without any division of the whole. Social virtues, however, said Rousseau, could notdevelop by themselves. In that earlierwork he emphasized that civilization/society produces many evils. In Rousseau's ideal society, citizens are not forced into acommunity, but they agree upon it for the mutual benefit of all. 35). Manmust be able to be capable of submission to law, but, for it to be natural,it must speak directl8y by the voice of nature" (p. He also writes that: "Force is physicalpower; I fail to see what morality can result from its effects" (p. This is the fundamental problem of which the Social Contract provides the solution (p. 143). Absolute rule and power would have to bereplaced by a civil society voluntarily formed by its citizens and governedin accordance to the general will. The social treaty has as its purpose the conservation of the contracting parties. The idea that a mutually agreed upon society is good is a differentview than Rousseau expressed in The Origins of Inequality. Those who refuse to obey the rules of thesovereign, after having agreed to be a part of society, shall be punishedby death. The Social Contract Rousseau explains in the chapter "On Law," has"given existence and life to the body politic. 159). This sentiment was best expressed in theSocial Contract: The problem is to find a form of association which will defend and protect with the whole common force the persona and goods of each associate, and in which each, while uniting himself with all, may still obey himself alone and remain as free as before (p. His belief that all membersof society should share equally in its freedom, security and property mostlikely stems from his background. He blamed the arts and sciences, andthe wealth and luxury it produced, forthe immorality of modern civilization. Cambridge:Hackett Publishing Company, 1987. In Discourse on Inequality, however, which basicallyis a speculation about the origins of society, Rousseau contends that manwas peaceable as well as solitary until the onset of society. He contends that the community of civil society as sovereign,created through the Social Contract. Hiscontention that men were happier and more free when they lived in a stateof nature informs all his work. Rousseau makes an important distinction between sovereignty andgovernment. Also, too much time would have to be spendattempting to overcome the evils of modern civilization. Luxury seldom thrives without the sciences and arts, and they never thrive without it" (p. That idea was one of his majorcontributions to political philosophy. 118). It was not until he wrotethe Social Contract that Rousseau developed the solution to thissubjugation and injustice. In Discourse on Inequality, Rousseauaddresses the problem of how social conditions create for men a basicdilemma for the establishment and exercise of their individualism.Rousseau asks, What is the origin of inequality among men And is itauthorized by natural law? Rather than benefiting man, the advancement of the artsand sciences and material progress made government more powerful to thedetriment of mankind's individual liberty. Rousseau's reasoning here is that every "malefactor who attacks thesocial right becomes through his transgression a rebel and a traitor...; inviolating its laws, he cases to be a member" (p. The problem is to find a form of association which will defend and protect with the whole common force the person and goods of each associate, and In which each, while uniting himself with all, may still obey himself alone, and remain as free as before. AlthoughRousseau proclaimed many ideas of the Enlightenment, he was also a criticof its ideals. They are frivolous and a waste of time, and most important,lead to luxury which is detrimental to good morals. To Rousseau, moral reason in the highest form of freedom becauseall members of society have chosen to live by mutually agreed upon laws. Rousseau, however, recommends that property should be left alone asmuch as possible as remain in the same family. The general will expresses what isbest for the state as a whole. (P. 161). Governmentsmust receive contributions or taxes from its citizens in order to run thestate. The role of freedom is the central issue of The Social Contract. Whoever wills the end also wills the means, and these means are inseparable from some risks...Whoever wishes to preserve his life at the expense of ` others should also give it up for them when necessary (159). 124). The Social Contract,then, is concerned with the relationship of man with society, and is also asophisticated theory of government. Other evils That are even worse follow after letters and the the arts. Although total, unfettered liberty is given upthrough the Social Contract, the gain of moral liberty is more valuablesince its offers true protection. In the SocialContract, however, Rousseau discusses the benefits of a civilized societybased on mutually agreed upon laws. Obviously Rousseau is negatingthe rule of absolute monarchy and thinking more in terms of a democraticsociety, a society in which men are active participants for their mutualbenefit. In spite of this, natural man was good. The emphasis on man's natural state and the simple life does not meanthat Rousseau believed that men should live in a wild state. In short, criminals should receive the death penalty. Akey element of the Social Contract is that each generation needs to renewthe Contract in order to renew its commitment to a social order based onthe General Will of its time. Most important, the belief grew that a Republican form ofgovernment was preferable to a single, all-powerful ruler. ...the origin of society and laws, which gave new fetters to the weak, and new forces to the rich, irretrievably destroyed natural liberty, Established forever the law of property and Of inequality...for the profit of a few ambitious men...the entire human race (was subjugated) to labor, servitude and misery" (p.
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