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GENETIC ENGINEERING.
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Developments in genetics and gene therapy.... More...
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Paper Abstract:
Developments in genetics and gene therapy. Their uses. To cure human diseases such as Huntington's Disease. To develop organs suitable for transplantation into humans. To provide larger, healthier food supply for animals. To produce drugs. To increase yields of plants and make them disease and pest resistant. Problems of genetic engineering.
Paper Introduction:
Genetic engineering is used in humans to attempt to cure diseases; in animals to provide a larger and healthier food supply, to produce drugs, and to develop organs suitable for transplantation into humans; and in plants to make them disease- and pest-resistant, to increase their yields, improve taste, and prolong shelf life. Recent developments on the human front include the use of RNA interference (RNAi), which uses small nuclear RNAs to mask sites of abnormal splicing on genes and thus prevent translation of incorrect gene sequences; the use of lentivirus vectors to correct defective genes; and the use of adenovirus transgenes that are stable over time (1:24).
Huntington’s disease is an autosomal dominant disease, and until now, efforts at genetic engineering in these patients has been directed at decreasing expression of the abnormal gene
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The release of GABA from the nerve cells inhibits the overactivityin the STN region of the brain, and so normal movement control is possiblein these patients. The production ofplants resistant to extreme environmental conditions of heat and droughtare important for regions of the world in which these crops cannot normallysurvive, and increased crop yields help to feed the many starvingpopulations of the world. A lab raises a virus - and lots of questions. The virus it made was just as infectious asits natural counterpart.Although this technology holds tremendous promise if used for the rightreasons, it also holds a threat to mankind in the wrong hands. Therapy for genes. Genetic engineering not only takes place in humans, but also inanimals and plants (5:5). Position of the American Dietetic Association: biotechnology and the future of food. Researchers have now found a way tostimulate a patient's own genes to produce more vessels. 95:1429-1432; 1995.8. Plans are being made to combine themaytansinoids with antibodies that target tumors so the maytansinoids canlocated and enter cancer cells and destroy them without harming othercells. Since theonly cure for thalassemia is bone marrow transplantation, this masking ofthe defective gene splicing site offers a much needed treatment. & Indust. Genetic engineering is used in humans to attempt to cure diseases; inanimals to provide a larger and healthier food supply, to produce drugs,and to develop organs suitable for transplantation into humans; and inplants to make them disease- and pest-resistant, to increase their yields,improve taste, and prolong shelf life. It is believes that genetic engineering may allow the use of certainpromising anticancer agents which are no longer used because they aredifficult to come by and proved too toxic to patients in initial trials,though they were very effective tumor inhibitors (3:1 ). The American Dietetic Association has issued a position statementsupporting the application of biotechnology to plants and animals,including genetic engineering in plants, use of recombinant somatotropin incows to increase milk production, and the identification of bacteria infoods (7:1429). The cows will then be challenged withantigens and produce large amounts of human antibodies for use in medicineproduction. Huntington's disease is an autosomal dominant disease, and until now,efforts at genetic engineering in these patients has been directed atdecreasing expression of the abnormal gene (1:24). These antibodies are still several years away from becomingpart of the modern medical arsenal because scientists need to find a way topurify the antibodies before they can be used in humans. Society of Chemical Industry. A gene from a bacterium has been inserted into aRussett Burbank potato, and the product is a potato with a higher starchcontent. After successful tests in rats and primates, in which normal motorcontrol was achieved with no negative side effects, the FDA has approvedtests in humans (2:4). Nov. Eckard Wimmer, a molecular geneticist at the StateUniversity of New York in Stony Brook began with the known sequence of thepolio virus, whose code he had cracked 2 years ago. Cohen, H. This technology promisesto make one-time application of the therapy last a lifetime. This reduces the oil absorption and reduces the cost of frenchfries as well as reducing the oil content of the finished product. This is preferable totraditional gene therapy because the injected genes only code for oneprotein, but genes often make a whole series of proteins, and turning thegene on allows it to function normally and make all the needed proteins forvessel growth. Today, many of the new developments in animal husbandry are occurringin a field referred to as "pharming" (6:24). With the new RNAitechnology, an animal model in which small interfering RNA (siRNA) istailored to a specific gene sequence that hybridizes to the complementaryDNA, inhibiting its translation. 131:24-27; 1998.7. Conventional gene therapy to induce new vessel growth in cardiacpatients with blocked vessels or poor circulation uses injections of genesthat code for vascular endothelial growth factor, a normal protein whichinduces new vessel growth (4:28). The transcription factors bind tounique DNA sequences near specific medically important genes and turnprotein production up or down, as required. The gene therapy aimsat normalizing the chemical status of the brain, keeping patient safetyforemost. Future pharming. American Dietetic Association. The work is currently being done in mice, but it is hopedit will work equally well in humans. It is hoped that the processcan be applied to human diseases, not only to prevent them in patients withdiseases such as Huntington's which develop in adulthood, but also to treatthe disease in patients in whom it has already developed. The now famousDolly, the cloned sheep produced by Scottish embryologist Ian Wilmut, was aresult of genetic engineering techniques: the DNA of an adult sheep wasplaced into the enucleated egg of another sheep to produce Dolly. The splicing is done using lentivirus as a vector. It isalso a better treatment than trying to replace the gene, which has beendone in the past, because that results in excess RNA and hemoglobinproduction, which also causes problems. Inearly tests, these maytansinoids were effective against some tumors andleukemias. This causes overactivity in the subthalamic nucleus(STN) in Parkinson's patients. A reduction in dopamine levels leads to a loss ofcontrol of movement caused by a disturbance in the brain mechanism whichnormally controls it. Human cows. Dietetic Assoc. Am. In 1996, a transgenic goat wasdeveloped which carried a gene for BR-96, an antibody developed to deliverconjugated anticancer drugs to patients (6:25). In vitro, stability has been achieved for six monthsor more. The FDA has approved production of recombinant bovine somatotrophinin dairy cows, a protein hormone normally found in cows and necessary formilk production (7:1429). Adenoviruses have long been used as vectors in gene therapy, but theydo not last for ever in the body, and multiple doses are not possiblebecause the immune system develops resistance to them (1:24). Chem. They haveengineered transcription factors which act directly on a patient's DNA tostimulate or block protein production. Jonietz, E. In thedisease, incorrect gene splicing results in a hemoglobin deficit, and inthe new treatment, the defective RNA sequences are masked with U7 snRNAwhich has a complementary site for the defective splicing site on the pre-mRNA, a small molecule of nuclear RNA which normally processes mRNA forhistones. Animals. Weekly. The first step was to identify the genes that controlmaytansinoid production and clone them. The CEO of Genzyme saysthat a new $1 million facility making drugs to treat Gaucher's diseasecould be replaced by a herd of 12 goats in the near future. 16:24-27; 2 2.2. Gene Ther. Rev. 1 5:28; 2 2.5. Cloned calves carrying DNA with genes from thehuman immune system are being produced in the United States to producehuman antibodies in their blood. Recent developments on the humanfront include the use of RNA interference (RNAi), which uses small nuclearRNAs to mask sites of abnormal splicing on genes and thus preventtranslation of incorrect gene sequences; the use of lentivirus vectors tocorrect defective genes; and the use of adenovirus transgenes that arestable over time (1:24). The current transcription factorshave to be delivered by traditional gene therapy methods to reach apatient's DNA, but researchers hope to make a version which can be givenintravenously. Researchers have been working to modify the chemical structureof the compounds to make them less toxic to patients, and now researchersin Germany have developed ways of modifying the genes that createmaytansinoids and produce anticancer treatments that are better toleratedby patients. Gene therapy marches forward: different approaches breathe new life into the discipline. TheRNA began to make copies of itself and make the proteins and othercomponents of the real virus. Their legs cannotbear this weight and they suffer from painful foot and leg deformities.The gene that produces prolactin hormone in turkey hens is blocked by gene-splicing technology to prevent broodiness and increase egg laying, but itdeprives them of the mothering instinct. Genetic engineering could salvage once-promising anticancer agents. Carey, J.; Gross, N. Genetic engineering and gene therapy are not without problems.Modern broiler chickens have been bred to reach maturity within sevenweeks, at a weight of five pounds at slaughter (6:26). Literature Cited1. 7:4; 2 2.3. The gene therapy is promising because currentlyavailable treatments for Parkinson's disease are not very successful.Patients become resistant to current medical therapies over time, andsurgical therapies are carried out by destroying overactive areas of thebrain, which also has limitations and side effects. July 12: 1 : 2 2.4. New study shows efficacy of gene therapy. His team synthesizedbits of DNA and strung them together into a 7,4 molecule chain, making acopy of the virus' gene. Herbicide-resistantsoybeans and cotton seed are being used for animal feed. Rifkin, J. Animal cloning will also allow the production oftransgenic animals bearing human genes as a source of organs fortransplantation, which will avoid rejection problems (6:25-26). Technol. 5:1; 2 2.6. The structure of these genes wasthen altered at the gene level. Week. Plants are being developed which are resistant todisease, pests, adverse environmental conditions, and specific herbicidesand pesticides to increase crop yields. Herds of animals are beingused as biofactories to produce pharmaceutical products, medicines, andnutrients in their milk and blood. tomatoes), which taste better and have a longer shelf life,because of a delay in the degradation of pectin and altered response of theplants to ethylene. Genetic modifications have produced fruits which ripen onthe vine (e.g. Thalassemia, a form of anemia caused by defective hemoglobinproduction, is being treated using gene splicing technology (1:24). He used a natural enzyme to copy the DNA to RNA,and put the RNA into a mixture of chemicals and cellular components. Genomics & Genetics Weekly. J. Bus. Parkinson's disease occurs because of a profound loss of a specifictype of nerve cell which lies deep in the brain and produces dopamine, aneurotransmitter (2:4). One of the most alarming developments to date in genetic engineeringis the fact that scientists have now been able to create a living virusfrom scratch (8:63). The hormone is then isolated from the milk,purified, and injected into other dairy cows to increase milk production.Porcine somatotropin, a similar hormone found in pigs, redirects dietaryenergy from fat formation into the production of lean muscle, and is usedto produce leaner pork. It has also worked in the mouse model. Work is nowbeing done on an adenovirus transposon vector that can stabilize transgeneexpression over time. The siRNA acts by binding a proteincomplex which targets mRNA to degrade, preventing it from making itsaberrant protein and so preventing disease. The Scientist. Transgenic animal experimentsoften produce animals with gross abnormalities. Transgenic corn seed, cotton seed,and seed potatoes contain genetic materials which make them resistant topests and again, the result is increased crop yields. The anticanceragents are called maytansinoids, and were originally obtained from rareEthiopian plants, and later were isolated from a new bacteria species. Researchers have developed a form of genetherapy in which an adenovirus vector with an inserted GAD gene isdelivered to the affected brain area, where it produces small molecules ofGABA. Whilecloning will no doubt be an important part of medical efforts in the nearfuture, it is also being examined by the meat industry as a way ofproducing animals to specific standards of lean-to-fat ratios and otherdesired features. 3792:63; 2 2.
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