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SPORTS ANXIETY.
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Focuses on track and field players.... More...
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Paper Abstract:
Focuses on track and field players. Overview of theory of sports anxiety in general. Debilitating effect on performance. Reviews three experiments dealing with anxiety levels of athletes. Contends that the cognitive-behavioral model of sports anxiety helps explain variance in athletes' performance. Other factors such as self-confidence levels, expectations, the complexity of the sport.
Paper Introduction:
SPORTS ANXIETY IN RUNNING TRACK:
NATURE OF THE PROBLEM AND STEPS TO CORRECT IT
Introduction
As noted by Orlick and Partington (1998), the ability to cope with pressure and anxiety is an important element of success in the field of sports; this is particularly true of elite athletes (Hardy, Jones & Gould, 1996). The problem is that when anxiety levels become too high, they can serious affect an athlete’s ability to focus on skills and flow in performance causing even a very skilled athlete to experience a lack of success in competitive sports (Swain & Jones, 1996).
This paper examines sports anxiety as related to running track. The paper begins with an overview of theory regarding the general problem of sports anxiety and its potential for debilitating perf
Text of the Paper:
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J. L. A catastrophe model of anxiety and performance. Orlick, T., & Partington, J. (198 ) A study of anxiety in sport. O. B. In still another study, Krane and Williams (1994) assessed arousal,cognitive anxiety and self-confidence in both high school and college trackand field athletes. In this regard,stress can be defined as a state that results from the demands that areplaced on the individual which require that person to engage in some copingbehavior (Jones, 199 ). Hardy, L. (1996). As just noted, Humarra (1999)reviews several strategies and it is recommended here that one or more ofthese strategies be employed for track and field players with high levelsof sports anxiety. According to Jones (199 ) a certain level of stressis required for optimum performance; if there is too little stress,motivation is low and boredom high. Too much stress leads to depressedperformance, while the optimal level of stress provides the benefits ofalertness and activation. (1996). Anxiety comes from a concern over lack ofcontrol over circumstances. Thus, once again the model appeared to apply to these athletes.However, once again additional factors needed to be added to the model,factors such as gender, level of maturational development, and complexityof the sports event. (1999). Jones & L. Hardy, L., Jones, G., & Gould, D. (1955). While there are several cognitive-behavioral models, one thatsynthesizes most of these is the model offered by Hummara (1999) whichrelates anxiety and performance to the interactive effects of physiologicalarousal and cognitive process producing anxiety (e.g., worry) stating thatphysiological arousal can influence performance as a result of theindividual's cognitive interpretation of their physiological arousalsymptoms. Journal of Personality, 55(1),139-153. & Williams, J. (1996). T. (1998). Once physiological arousal levels are too high there is a steep drop in performance which can only be reversed by a reduction in physiological arousal. Hardy, Jones and Gould (1996) point out that anxiety is differentfrom stress. (199 ). Some of the recommended strategies are: goal setting;though control strategies such as positive thinking and cognitiverestructuring; relaxation techniques such as diaphragmatic breathing,imagery, and progressive muscle relaxation; and focusing on the task athand. Perception of anxiety andexpectations of performance. In W. Humarra (1999) reports that, according to the model: ... The problem is that when anxiety levels become too high, they canserious affect an athlete's ability to focus on skills and flow inperformance causing even a very skilled athlete to experience a lack ofsuccess in competitive sports (Swain & Jones, 1996). Swain, A. . NY: Wiley. International Journal of SportPsychology, 25(2), 2 3-217. Athletic Insight: The OnlineJournal of Sports Psychology, 1(2). Furthermore, when cognitive anxiety is at a low level, changes in physiological arousal have little effect upon performance. Both subjective andobjective measures of performance were also collected following theathletes' various competitive events. However, the literature also shows that there are anumber of additional factors that contribute to sports anxiety such as self-confidence levels, expectations, age, gender, and complexity of the sportitself. NY: Wiley. Anxiety, Stress and Coping: An InternationalJournal, 9, 1-18. college male non-placers had the lowestlevels of cognitive anxiety but high school male nonplacers had the highestlevels of cognitive anxiety; (5)cognitive anxiety levels significantlydiffered depending upon the complexity of the sports event itself such thatwith greater event complexity, the stronger the cognitive anxiety levels;and (6) subjects did not differ in levels of self-confidence. (1994). Hebb, D. (1957). M. As predicted by the model, sports anxiety was lower if levelsof arousal were lower. The measure of sports anxiety was The Competitive State AnxietyInventory-2. According to Taylor, findings showedthat all three measures were significant predictors of performance,explaining performance variance in line with the anxiety-arousal model. Normally, however, it will just result innegative thinking. Wiggins and Brustad(1996), for example, examined cognitive processes related to sports anxietyand arousal in a sample of 91 athletes, some of which were in track andfield. On the other hand, arousal is commonly defined as a biopsychophysicalsignal to the individual that he or she has entered a stressful state; thearousal itself is a purely physical state (Hardy, Jones & Gould, 1996).The concept of anxiety in the sports context (sports anxiety) can beconceptualized as a state that arises when an athlete doubts his or herability to cope with a sports situation that is causing him or her stress.It is marked by worry and concern. L. This paper examines sports anxiety as related to running track. Hanin, Y. Despite the fact that the research may be incomplete, the findingthat the cognitive model does to some extent explain sports anxiety intrack and field players leads to still another conclusion, this conclusionbeing related to the solution to the problem. & Brustad, R. On the otherhand, even if the track and field player is experiencing strong levels ofphysiological arousal, if his or her anxiety levels are generally low, thenperformance will not be negatively affected. Drives and the CNS (Conceptual Nervous System).Psychological Review, 62, 243-254. Research A key question that can be asked given the just delineated model is:Does the cognitive model apply to sports anxiety as experienced by trackand field athletes? F. The greatest facilitation of performance was observed forathletes with low levels of sports anxiety, relatively low levels ofarousal, and high self-confidence. Humarra, M. Straub(Ed.), Sport psychology: An analysis of athletic behavior, movement.Ithaca, NY: Movement Publications. InJ. Cognitive-behavioral perspectives of therelationship between anxiety and performance. Understandingpsychological preparation for sport: Theory and practice of eliteperformers. Conclusions and Proposed SolutionConclusions Based on the small sample of studies just reviewed, it can beconcluded that sports anxiety is an experience of track and field athletes.Moreover, it can be concluded that the cognitive-behavioral model of sportsanxiety, at least to some extent, explains some of the variance in theseathletes' performance. Also showing that the cognitive-behavioral model is relevant to thesports anxiety of athletes running track is a study conducted by Taylor(1987). The finalsections of the paper propose a solution to the problem and a justificationfor the proposed solution. Conceptual and Theoretical Model of Sports Anxiety In terms of understanding sports anxiety the first importantrequirement is to distinguish the concept of anxiety from that of "stress"and "arousal" and "activation" terms which are all too often usedinterchangeably in the research (Swain & Jones, 1996). Allsubjects were required to complete the Sport Competition Anxiety Test thatmeasured their degree of self-confidence, their degree of somatic arousal,and their degree of cognitive anxiety or worry. J., & Jones, G. Document available:http://www.athleticinsight.com/ AnxietyIssue Frame1Source1.htm. However, as cognitive anxiety increases physiological arousal can have either a positive or negative effect on performance depending on how much arousal there is. It was also found that these athleteshad very high expectations for their performance and thus were not worriedabout the situation. Explaining performancevariance,: The relative contribution of intensity and direction dimensionsof competitive state anxiety. Krane, V. This isfollowed by a review of three experiments related to the problem. Taylor, J. (p. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 83 (3, Pt 1),1 71_1 74. Indications are that it does. In some cases being anxious and worrying over aproblem may generate a solution. Wiggins, M.S. What this study shows is that the general modelappears to apply to athletes participating in track and field, albeit withsome modification for additional cognitive variables. To stop this negative effect, effortswould have to be made to reduce the physiological arousal. Cognitive anxiety, somaticanxiety, and confidence in track and field athletes: The impact of gender,competitive level and task characteristics. In the study, all subjects completed the CompetitiveState Anxiety Inventory_2 within 2 minutes of finishing event in whichthey competed at a track and field relay meet. Mental links to excellence.The Sport Psychologist, 2, 1 5-13 . SPORTS ANXIETY IN RUNNING TRACK: NATURE OF THE PROBLEM AND STEPS TO CORRECT IT Introduction As noted by Orlick and Partington (1998), the ability to cope withpressure and anxiety is an important element of success in the field ofsports; this is particularly true of elite athletes (Hardy, Jones & Gould,1996). Thepaper begins with an overview of theory regarding the general problem ofsports anxiety and its potential for debilitating performance. Moreover, there existstudies showing that cognitive-behavioral strategies and therapy haveindeed worked well for reducing anxiety in diverse groups of athletes (see:Humarra, 1999).Solution Based on the presented review of literature and the formulatedconclusions, the solution to the problem of sports anxiety debilitating theperformance of track and field athletes is to employ cognitive-behavioralstrategies to reduce their anxiety levels. Hardy (Eds.), Stress and performance in sport. Subjects in the study were both male (n=63) and female (n=21)athletes in a variety of different sports including track and field. However, the authors also found that a cognitive factor thatfacilitated performance by keeping sports anxiety low was degree of self-confidence. as cognitive anxiety increases it will be beneficial to performance at low levels of physiological arousal but a detrimental effect at high levels of physiological arousal... Indeed, it seems reasonable to conclude that it is quite likelythat not all contributive factors have as yet been determined. Emotionality and the Yerkes-Dodson law.Journal of Experimental Psychology, 54, 345-352. Predicting athletic performance with self-confidence and somatic and cognitive anxiety as a function of motor andphysiological requirements in six sports. Over the years, there have been various theoretical models attemptingto explain sports anxiety. References Broadhurst, P. 3) Applying this to the track and field player, it would be expectedthat sports anxiety will not debilitate performance if the athlete's levelof physiological (somatic) arousal is low, but if arousal continues toincrease such as it often does during the actual performance, negativeeffects on performance can occur. In this regard, it seemsjustifiable to believe that if the cognitive-behavioral model applies tothese players, then cognitive methods for reducing detrimental levels ofsports anxiety should be used to resolve the problem. These included models relating the anxiety to astate of arousal (e.g., Broadhurst, 1957; Hebb, 1955); models relatingdifferences in performances of athletes to the concept of individualizedzones of optimal functioning (e.g., Hanin, 198 , 1986); and in more recentyears to cognitive processes. (1987). Findings of the study showed that:: (1) males experienced lowerlevels of arousal and higher levels of cognitive anxiety than females; (2)college athletes evidenced lower levels of cognitive anxiety and arousalthan high school students; (3).
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