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LABELING THEORIES.
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Necessity to label deviations from the norm.... More...
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Paper Abstract:
Necessity to label deviations from the norm. Social reaction theory. Discusses three journal articles on labeling and their theories. Role of deviance in labeling process. Recidivism risks in drug courts. Role of past traumatic events in anti-social behavior. Relationship of deviance and crime. Problems causes by labeling.

Paper Introduction:
LABELING THEORIES We tend to live in an ordered society. That makes it necessary to set rules and regulations, and to “label” not only the measures of conformity, but deviations from the norm. In criminology, such deviations are carefully studied- both for their origins and the results. Many recent journal articles (including the ones selected for discussion here) now tend to blur the line between sociology and criminology- assuming there was a division line in the first place. So, perhaps one should begin with what is an acknowledged definition of the labeling theory. One looks to Howard Becker as the modern developer (1963) of what he also refers to as social reaction theory in his book Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology of Deviance. His landmark book views deviance as the creation of social groups

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One looks to Howard Beckeras the modern developer (1963) of what he also refers to as social reactiontheory in his book Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology of Deviance. This, of course, is a media term, ratherthan one used by sociologists or criminologists. (Miethe 11) Crime and deviance are the subjects of Social Learning and SocialStructure: A General Theory of Crime and Deviance by Ronald L. What is needed, even given just the three examples cited in thisessay, is a more detailed societal overview of just what the "norm", thestandards of behavior, should be. Often we see theterm incorrigible" as a label. As Zhang writes:"Social isolation is also treated as an intervening variable betweeninformal reactions and subsequent delinquency." (Zhang 4) Last week, on NBC-TV's news programs, was a story about a judge in?Georgia sentencing some defendants to "public shaming" by having to walkaround, or stand in a certain spot, with a sign explaining his crime (inone case, drunk driving and hit and run). of North Carolina publication,Social Forces. Inaddition, delinquent behavior may also be the result of informal parentallabeling. Columbine and Santanahigh school massacres are only two recent examples. In the three journal articles about labeling and its theories (how ithas evolved since the 196 s) we will see the role of deviance in thelabeling process. "Prior delinquency was significantly and positively related tosubsequent delinquency." (Zhang 8) While none of the journal articles referto gang relationships, per se, Zhang dopes allude to the fact that deviantstend to form closer social relationships with similar delinquents.Therefore, one may conclude that gangs are a means of avoiding other socialisolations by "sticking together"- a sort of "peas-in-a-pod" syndrome. (2 ) Social Learning and Social Structure: A General Theoryof Crime and Deviance Social Forces 78 (3) 1171-1173Zhang, Lening: (1997) "Informal reactions and delinquency" Criminal Justiceand Behavior 24 (1) pp 129-15 Second, reintegration is not done in a way that totally embraces the offender and offers him or her opportunities. Yet, when a deviant is"labeled" that label cannot easily be removed. First, shaming is directed not only at the offense but also at the offender. "Shaming that takes the form of stigmatizatio n...emphasizesthe labeling of the offender as deviant and pays little attention todelabeling in order to signify forgiveness and reintegration. Miethe's investigation of recidivism risks in drug courts states :"Onof the most perplexing issues in criminology is the relationship bet6weensocial control efforts and criminal behavior...Labeling theory...assumesthat official reactions have a deviance-amplification effect through theprocess of stigmatizing the individual, closing off further opportunities,and subsequently developing a deviant self-image." (Miethe 1) Drug Courts, in particular, offer an opportunity to test thelabeling and recidivism theories, because in many cases the drug problemsin the traditional criminal justice system appear to be a "revolving door"(Miethe 2) situation. Akers, andreviewed by John Simpson favorably in the U. Beginning in the 196 s, "a distinct style of knowledgecreation was consolidated in sociology. This, of course, causes oneto wonder who does the labeling, and is it a fair means of providingterminology for deviant behavior? In terms of criminology is "deviancy"nothing more than "getting caught" doing something anti-social or illegal?Is there a difference between "anti-social behavior" and "deviantbehavior"? Hislandmark book views deviance as the creation of social groups and not thequality of some act or behavior. (2 ) Reintegrative shaming andrecidivism risks in drug court: Explanations for some unexpected findings.Crime and Delinquency 46(4) 522-541Simpson, J.H. The poor performance of drug court in this study reveals three drawbacks of the program when measured by the principle of reintegrative shaming. We have seendire consequences from labeling by fellow students. WORKS CITED:(Note: page numbers in the text above refer to print-out pages of thearticles cited from library databases.)Miethe,T.D. You're a loser!) However what neither this book, the review of Akers' book, or theMiethe and Zhang studies, detail is who in society or in power makes theultimate definition of "deviancy"? Moreover, what can be done- outsidelabeling and court appearances, to find the means of having delinquents andthose labeled as potential offenders, find a way to return to society- tobe "re-integrated", as it were. Labeling, whether formal or informal, canhave serious conseqiuences....Informal reactions may push the labeledperson to commit further deviance....informal reactions may have negativeconsewuences in other areas of the labeled person's life, such asinterpersonal relationships..(But), as deterrnace theory predicts, informalreactions may be important factors in deterring further deviance." (Zhang4) It is obvious from these and other studies of the labeling theory thatWHO does the labeling may be as important as WHY it is done. The central defining element ofthis phenomenon was simple, elegant, and thoroughly modern: testabletheories." (Simpson 1) Akers, in this book, the development and theexpansion of the social learning theory of deviance. This theory has been(and continues to be) tested in areas including juvenile delinquency,adolescent drug, drinking, and smoking behavior; elderly drinking behavior;and sexual aggressiveness of male university students. In the past several decades, as Simpson describes it, there have beentwo "contenders" for sociological (and criminological) dominance- thesocial learning theory versus the self control theory. As the authors point out there is a dichotomy inthese procedures: public shaming from the judge and others, and at the sametime "efforts to reintegrate the defendant back into society" (Miethe 2)Having attended and observed court actions in Miami and Las Vegas, theconsensus feels that "the primary goal of these programs us to reducecriminal recidivism and substance abuse among those nonviolent offenders."(Miethe 4) What this article purports to delineate is whether the "shaming" and"reintegration" efforts in the part of the drug courts tend to cancel oneanother out. That makes it necessary to setrules and regulations, and to "label" not only the measures of conformity,but deviations from the norm. Recidivism also plays apart here. LABELING THEORIES We tend to live in an ordered society. Third, the effects of reintegrative shaming are significantly reduced when not conducted by someone who is closely related or highly respected by the defendant. Hong Lu, and Reese, E. Zhang's model explicitly states (and shows by graph) that, among otherthings, "Delinquent acts are a significant predictor of informallabeling...Social isolation, in turn, increases the likelihood ofsubsequent delinquency." (Zhang 5) Social isolation is explained as in parta dysfunctional family or friendship relationship. He criticizes other theories of deviancefor accepting the existence of deviance and that by doing so, accepting thevalues of the majority within the social group. So, perhaps one should begin with what is anacknowledged definition of the labeling theory. There were no significant difference in recidivismrisks by gender, age, prior convictions, or other measures of the type ofdrug charge." (Miethe 8) In the authors' conclusions they seemed to consider their observationsin the Las Vegas drug court as failing to provide reintegrative efforts,concentrating (at least on the part of the judges) on the stigmatizationand shaming of the defendants. While there seemedto be a similarity between the two groups in terms of socio-demographiccharacteristics and the number and nature of the drug charges, "drug-courtparticipants had substantially higher recidivism risks than non-drug courtparticipants." (Miethe 8) In stating the results, the authors write "Recidivists in 1996 were atleast twice as likely to continue their ways across all three measures ofrecidivism in 1997. The fact remains that deviant behavior can often be exploredonly by those actually apprehended and put on trial for sentencing. Miethe's (et al) study took a sample of 3 1 defendants in 1995 drugcourt cases versus a "control" sample from non-drug court cases, withrecidivism accounted for only in new court appearances. (How often has a juvenile defendant explained that his parentskeep telling him, or her, that "you're no good. "The question 'Whowins?' admits no easy answer." (Simpson 2) What the book's author summarizes is that "the social psychologicalprocesses that explain deviant behavior...mediate the effects of socialstructure and the 'end product' of officially recorded crime anddelinquency." (Simpson 2) Zhang (1997) states that the labeling perspective on deviance ismaking a strong comeback after being side-tracked in the '7 s and '8 s."This revitalization reflects new theoretical and research interests inlabeling theory, which indicate the potential power and capacity of thetheory for explaining deviance and crime." (Zhang 2) Zhang further statesthat his present study "addressed an important but relatively neglectedissue- the informed labeling process and delinquency." (Zhang 2)This includes "the evaluations and views of social audiences, such asparents and close friends, might have significant effects on the self-evaluation of labeled deviants." (Zhang 2) Zhang also makes a point by stating that "a strategy is required forpredicting the circumstances where labeling will be counter-productive andwhere it will actually reduce crime." (Zhang 3) Most of us read newspaper accounts of deviants- whether young peoplewho shoot fellow students, drunk drivers who cause hit and run deaths,child abusers, kidnappers, bank robbers, and the like. In criminology, such deviations are carefullystudied- both for their origins and the results. Many recent journalarticles (including the ones selected for discussion here) now tend to blurthe line between sociology and criminology- assuming there was a divisionline in the first place. We livein a society that loves the idea of "getting away with it"- whether it ishacking into secret corporate or Pentagon files by computer nerds, shop-lifting, kiting expense reports, or having someone write a college essay.

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