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FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION IN AFRICA.
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Background, cultural purpose & origin of practice of FGM. Health consequences, support of the practice, human rights issues.... More...
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Paper Abstract:
Background, cultural purpose & origin of practice of FGM. Health consequences, support of the practice, human rights issues.
Paper Introduction:
Female Genital Mutilation in Africa
Introduction
The issue of female genital mutilation has become a well-known one, popularized by Alice Walker in her book and the subject of television shows. It has entered the mainstream consciousness of Americans through those sources and through contact with the practice in hospitals and in newspaper articles. For example, in two separate instances during the late 1990s, women requested political asylum in the United States strictly on the basis of fear of genital mutilation (Waldman, 1999;Lazarus, 2000) One woman, Adelaide Abankwah, from Ghana, was granted asylum because of her stated fear that if she returned to her country she would be subjected to female
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In this instance, the support for thepractice was not religion or culture, but science, which provided thejustification for the practice and gave it credibility and validity. Abusharaf (1998) provided a harrowing description of one small girl'sexperience of FGM. Inother regions of Africa, the ceremony may be performed at 12, or even intothe teen-age years. Nonetheless, the pharaonic form of FGMis associated with the highest risk of complications at all ages and bothat the time of FGM and during later life. Even more troubling are the consequences of the practice of FGM interms of those diseases that are transmitted through blood-borne pathogens. Combating female genital mutilation: An agendafor the next decade. Herdaughter would have been subjected to the procedure if they returned toNigeria and her ex-husband's extended family. Female Genital Mutilation in Africa Introduction The issue of female genital mutilation has become a well-known one,popularized by Alice Walker in her book and the subject of televisionshows. Support for the practice in Africa It is difficult to understand the support for this practice inAfrica, since there are so many factors involved. Sciences, 38(2), 22-27. Waldman, A. As Dorkenoo (1996) reported, prevalence hasbeen estimated to range anywhere from 5 percent to 98 percent of the femalepopulation in various regions. (1989). Governments are divided onthe issue. James, S.M. For example, the circumcision index was zero forthose mothers aged 16-2 and 3. Case WesternReserve Journal of International Law, 32(1), 1 1-128. Thereneeds to be another form of rite of passage. Nursing, 28(9), 5 -51. In general, FGM means that girls become accepted as women, or asentering the community of women. Lazarus (2 ) insisted that U.S. Lazarus noted that immigration law clearly has failed in this area,leaving the women unprotected and with impossible alternatives. There is indication that most of the mothers learned about FGMthrough informal networks, rather than health care providers or governmentsources. In terms of total numbers, there is a wide discrepancy in theestimates made on prevalence. During that time, the women experienced numerousinstances of infections and other vulval complications requiring repeatedhospitalizations and treatments. Female genital mutilation - postcircumcision vulval complicationsin Nigerians. While Muslims in Africa practice FGM, those in othercountries, such as Saudi Arabia do not and do not have a tradition of doingso. It may be attended byfeasting, gifts, ceremonies, secret instruction, and induction into thewomen's community. Adekunle, A.O., Fakokunde, F.A., Odukogbe, A.A. Yet, they noted that the strongestassociation seemed to be with the level of the mother's education. and Fawole, A.O.(1999). Something must be provided that performs the sameritual transformation without the risks and horrible complications. She has not status, may notbe marriageable, and can never gain the respect of others. It is, in other words, aninstrument of oppression. Other beliefs include such ideas asthe notion that the female genitals would continue to grow, becomingpenislike and inappropriate, and that vaginal secretions are unclean andfatal to sperm. Theprevalence of FGM among the mothers was 48 percent at the nine-month follow-up, while there was no FGM practiced on the infant female babies duringthis period of time. In other words, the women are viewed solely as victims,rather than as individuals who are able to think about the practice inwhich they engage and make some sort of informed choices about theirparticipation. Shades of othering: reflections on femalecircumcision/genital mutilation. The daughters themselves may wish tobe circumcised as a sign that they belong to the community as women, ratherthan remaining girls, or being outsiders to their community. In Nigeria, the prevalence varies widelywith locality, being particularly a practice of rural families withilliterate parents who have low levels of education (Odujinrin et al.,1989). Does freedom mean accepting rituals thatrepel the West? For some people, it issimply a long-standing cultural practice, an essential ritual for girlsanalagous to circumcision for boys. Igwegbe, A.O. With the clitoris associated with a masculine type of sexuality,FGM is a way of distinguishing clearly between the genders. Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 2 (5), 52 . A study onfemale circumcision in Nigeria. Feminists and human rights activistshave claimed that FGM is a form of violence against women and a form oftorture that is specifically directed toward one group of people anddesigned to keep them in an inferior position. Since the practice wassimply a part of the culture, an expectation for the women of theirgeneration, they did not think of it as a health hazard, but simply as arite of passage. West African Journal of Medicine, 8, 183-192. Again, there are associations between high prevalence of FGMand poverty, illiteracy, lack of health care, and lack of education forwomen. Brady, M. She did so, shivering in extremepain. Onthe other hand, they, too, may have decided not to continue to the practicefor their children. Clearly, too, the issue is gender or the difference between male andfemale. Inaddition, the prevalence of FGM decreased for increasing levels ofeducation. She was held down on the bed while the midwife cuther flesh without anesthetic. More complications are associated with the more extreme forms ofFGM, although all have their risks. This included theapplication of powders and a type of flattening massage. Female genital mutilation: A joint WHO/UNICEF/UNFPA statement. However, because of the agedifferential, it appears as though the practice is decreasing inprevalence, hopefully. Odujinrin, O.M., Akitoye, C.O. The girl could not eat, drink, or urinatefor three days. In addition, the opening to the vagina may be sewnalmost completely shut, leaving only a small opening for menstrual blood topass through. On the other hand, there are those who see the situation quitedifferently, including some men and women in African countries, and writersin this country, too. However, it alsoneeds to be acknowledged that out of the 325 children that started thestudy, only 2 were examined at the nine-month follow-up. It has entered the mainstream consciousness of Americans throughthose sources and through contact with the practice in hospitals and innewspaper articles. for mothers 31-35 years of age. Walker, A. Dorkenoo, E. Unmasking tradition. (1996). Woman fearful of mutilation wins long battle forasylum. For the Masai, girls undergo FGM publicly, like boysundergo circumcision, both proving their bravery. In other words, there is a constellation of beliefs, notall of which are attributed to any one group of people, that view FGM as aprocess that protects both women and men from abnormal, unclean, anddangerous situations. According to the researchers, none of the mothers was willing duringthis first year to allow FGM to be performed on the baby, but 36 percentapplied some form of local treatment to the clitoris. Approximately 5 percent of the mothers were completely ignorantabout any problems involved with FGM, although this seems unlikely. In addition, the practice of FGM also involves animists, Christians,and Jews in Africa. Because of its ingrained nature, if Westerners try to forceAfricans to abolish the ritual, it is likely they will fail, as they failedearlier in the century when colonial European powers tried to end FGM.Abusharaf (1998) made the important point that emotions run high whenchange occurs around certain issues, such as homosexuality in the West andFGM in Africa. References Abusharaf, R.M.. They are notaffected by educational campaigns or human rights campaigns, none of whichhave made major inroads in the regions where FGM is practiced mostassiduously. Therefore, any girl who does not undergo FGMis likely to bring dishonor to her family just by her very existence, nomatter what her actual behavior. and Parmar, P. This child, speaking about the experience nearly fortyyears later, said that she would never forget the horror of it. WorldHealth Organization. (1999). Abusharaf (1998) noted that FGM is soassociated with virginity that any girl who is spared FGM is assumed by thecommunity to be promiscuous. She said that she screamed until she losther voice, while the midwife kept telling her to be quiet so that she wasnot taken into police custody. Forexample, writing about women in Nigeria, Adenkunle et al. For others, of course, it is anathema,a form of violence against women that was instituted because of Islam andother patriarchal forms of religious activity. Although not practiced in all African countries, it is stillpracticed in at least 28 African countries and among a few ethnic groups inAsia. As noted, this involved powders and massage, but these seemto be directed to the same basic end of decreasing the possibility ofsexual pleasure for the female and reducing the possibility, then, that shewould act in such a way as to bring shame upon her family by engaging inunlawful sexual activity. Origin of the practice It is difficult to track down the origin of the practice of FGM andthere are many different beliefs about why it is necessary. It a group of practices that involves partial or totalremoval of female genitalia for non-therapeutic reasons. FGM also serves as a rite of passage. The "Sunna" form is that inwhich only the prepuce of the clitoris is excised. Inother words, educated mothers seemed to be less likely to want to continuethe practice of FGM on their female children. They were focused on theissue of FGM, examining both mothers and babies for this practice. Those who havebeen born female have that femaleness reinforced culturally by alteringthere external appearance so that there is absolutely no resemblancebetween them and between males and their genitalia. asylum lawshould clearly have protected Virginia Anikwata and her daughter, ratherthan forcing Virginia, the mother, to leave her daughter alone in theUnited States while she herself was deported back to Nigeria, or to takeher daughter back with her, ensuring that her daughter would be subjectedto FGM. World Health Statistics Quarterly, 49, 142-147. asylum law and the torture convention. Of those mothers who had experiencedFGM, 75 percent had experienced clitoridectomy, of FGM 2, according toWorld Health Organization classification. Although this practice no longer occurs in the West, the prevalenceof the practice of female genital mutilation is higher than one mightexpect. As Abusharaf (1998) indicated, in the 19th century,clitoridectomies were performed on women in both the United States andEngland in order to cure them of nymphomania, masturbation, rebelliousness,and supposed psychological problems. However,she was captured and subdued by her mother and two aunts who told her shewas going to be purified by the midwife. It seems more associated the climate in the Mediterranean regionwhich for centuries has revolved around the concepts of honor and shame.In other words, the important issue for each family is to maintain itshonor and minimize occasions bringing shame upon it. The prevalence and practiceof female genital mutilation in Nnewi, Nigeria: The impact of femaleeducation. She had requested asylum even though shehad already experienced FGM on behalf of her daughter and herself. Hrdy, D.B. The Practice of FGM There are many different types, or forms, of female genitalmutilation (FGM). The tendency to engagement in the processis centralized on the African continent, from Mauritania and the IvoryCoast in the West to Egypt, Somalia, and Tanzania in the east. Mothers believethey are doing the right thing and Abusharaf (1998) noted thatuncircumcised children probably would be social outcastes in their localcommunities, without respect and status, and unlikely to be marriageablebecause of their impure state. (1998). (1998). In addition, to the introduction of blood-borne pathogens, femalesundergoing any of the forms of FGM are subject to hemorrhage, sepsis,genitourinary problems, obstetric problems, psychosexual problems, andproblems during the birthing process (Dirie and Findmark, 1992; Brady,1998)). Conclusion As Abusharaf (1998) noted, government action, like that in Egypt isan important step, but insufficient in changing the role of FGM in Africaand Asia. To look at the situation more locally, Igwebe and Egbuonu (2 )looked at the prevalence of FGM in one location in Nigeria. Lazarus, J.A. This statement includes a definition of femalegenital mutilation, along with discussion of its prevalence, complication,national and community action, pertinent international human rightsagreements, and international approaches and actions (Female genitalmutilation, 1997). (1999). Even further, both women and menhave argued for a multicultural perspective which questions whetherdemocratic, pluralistic societies can absolutely condemn such rituals andtraditions. The woman who told this story indicated that she understood hermother's motives, and apparently had forgiven her, but that it took her along time to get back to normal and that she experienced extreme sufferingthrough the process (Abusharaf, 1998). Theresearchers followed 325 live female deliveries at Nnamdi AzikiweUniversity Teaching Hospital in Nnewi, Nigeria. At this time, there is widespread condemnation of female genitalmutilation, including movements within Africa itself. Nonetheless, there arerecords from at least the eighth century indicating that the practiceexisted in the region, and that those who were not circumcised wereconsidered to be inferior. Theydid not understand the dangers that were involved, even though theythemselves might have experienced complications. The researchers noted that the prevalence of FGMamong the mothers increased with age. In other words, there is uniform distaste for thepractice outside the regions where it is practiced where it remains animportant ritual, rite of passage, and means for girls to ensure theirplace in the community. There is suchintense pressure for FGM and such terrible social consequences for thosewho avoid FGM and remain in their communities, that adult women who havenot been circumcised frequently choose to undergo the ceremony, rather thanlive as permanent outsiders labeled as girls unfit to be treated likewomen. He alsonoted, however, that the Torture Convention has not previously been anavenue for applicants to gain asylum. and Egbuonu, I. New York Times, March 6, B9. When it is performed on oldergirls, it serves as the passage into womanhood. (1998). For example, in two separate instances during the late199 s, women requested political asylum in the United States strictly onthe basis of fear of genital mutilation (Waldman, 1999;Lazarus, 2 ) Onewoman, Adelaide Abankwah, from Ghana, was granted asylum because of herstated fear that if she returned to her country she would be subjected tofemale genital mutilation. Signs, 23(4), 1 31-1 48. (2 ). Crossette, B. Human rights issues As noted in the introduction, the debate in the United States hasbeen shaped as a human rights issue. While this is simplifying the argument radically (since it does nottake into account discriminatory structures), James and others have arguedagainst viewing non-Western women solely as victims who must be rescuedfrom inferior practices by Western women. Instead, it is a gradual process that may involve legislation,leadership by indigenous women, rebellion on the part of girls and womenlikely to be subjected to the procedure, and probably some replacementritual that would enable the women to be seen as fulfilling their rite ofpassage and becoming purified and marriageable. On the other hand, in Edo communities of Nigeria, FGM is oftenpracticed at about the age of 1 , or just before the onset of puberty. Background It is perhaps important to mention here that female genitalmutilation is not a new practice only engaged in by primitive people onother continents. Women simply are not getting the information they need to makeinformed decisions about allowing FGM to be performed on their daughters.Even in those instances where they are aware of the dangers, they may feelpressured by their communities, and the traditions of their people, to havetheir daughters circumcised anyway. Review ofInfectious Diseases, 9, 11 9-1117. It is a culturalor religious practice that has been difficult to eradicate despite thehealth hazard it represents both at the time it is performed and later inlife during childbirth, or just as a genial health issue. Warrior marks: Female genitalmutilation and the sexual blinding of women. The circumcision index was 1. People have strong beliefs about the subject and it is notnecessarily science, or reason, or legislation that allows for change tooccur. For example,Abusharaf (1998) noted that some peoples in Nigeria believe that if thewoman's clitoris is not removed, contact with that clitoris will kill anybaby during the process of childbirth. and Oyediran, M.A. Meaning of the practice The practice of FGM, like the practice of the circumcision of boys(which it does not resemble in effects), is defended as a rite of passageand as a long-standing cultural ritual that ensures chastity, promotescleanliness and fertility, and increases the beauty of the woman's body.According to Abusharaf (1998), the slang word for circumcision in Arabia istahara, which means "to purify". (2 ). (1993). For example, James (1998), while essentially supporting AliceWalker's campaign against FGM finds that Walker, and others, often engagein stereotypical thinking about Third World women that views these women aspassive targets of oppressive practices, rather than as active agents ontheir own behalf. Any woman who has not been circumcisedremains forever a girl within the community. The girls prove thatthey will be able to endure the pain of childbirth. for mothers at primary leveleducation and the index declined to .33 at the tertiary level of education. New York Times, August 18, B3. For example, Igwebeand Egbuonu (2 ) noted that among the Igbos of Nigeria, the ceremony isoften performed in earliest infancy, before the first month of life isover. There is variation in the timing of this ritual. One of these is, of course, HIV, the precursor to full-blown AIDS, adisease which has devastated Africa, costing entire generations to bemissing from towns and regions of central and south Africa (Hrdy, 1987).It is not only HIV that is transmitted by blood-borne pathogens, however.Hepatitis is another disease with multiple complications, and often fatalresults, that can be transmitted in this way. Her motherdid not tell her what was to happen, but took her to the midwife's house.The girl knew that this midwife performed circumcisions on the girls in herneighborhood and tried to break loose, because she was terrified. According to Abusharaf (1998), there are estimates that between 1 million and 13 million women have undergone female genital mutilation ofsome sort and that approximately two million more females will experiencethis practice during each year. Consequences of the practice There are numerous health consequences of the practice of FGM. In the clitoridectomy,the clitoris is removed, with or without removal of the labia minora.Finally, with infibulation or the pharaonic type, which is the mostextreme, the clitoria, the labia minora, and the labia majora are allremoved completely. While Egypt ruled the practice illegal, Even with governmentopposition, and illegality, many continue to perform FGM. Instead, they question how to balance the cultural variety ofa pluralistic society with mainstream values and traditions (Crossette,1999). The basic push for elimination of FGM must come from inside of Africaitself, even though the West has led the way in making it an important andvisible issue. There is some folk belief that female circumcision was introduced inancient Egypt, but this has not been borne out. Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 19(6), 632-635. The other woman's case was more complex, with aless happy ending from the INS. Since female circumcision is such an essential part of localtradition and ritual, treating it as a crime seems unjust. She finally had to appeal the decision of the INS by reference tothe UNS Convention Against Torture, a case still to be decided by theBoard. Even thoughit has been outlawed in some places (as in Egypt), this has not stopped thepractice, although it has made inroads. The girl felt that the midwifewas extremely cruel. One of her uncles found out what had been done andthreatened to press charges against the aunts. NY: Harcourt Brace. Clearly, too, FGM is designed to lessen, or eliminate, women's sexualenjoyment. The girl was taken back tothe midwife who ordered her to urinate. Since the practice isgenerally conducted by lay people in non-clinical environments, the risk ofboth infection and exposure to blood-borne pathogens is extremely high. Cultural practices contributing to thetransmission of human immunodeficiency virus in Africa. These shape the debate around cultural differenceand cultural imperialism, claiming that the United States is stilluncomfortable with cultural difference and still attempts to impose its ownideas about proper behavior on the developing world. There are three major forms of FGM. In general, FGMis performed by a traditional practitioner who is not a health careprovider, although some immigrants to the United States have sought to haveit performed in more healthy ways by hospitals (who have generally refusedto participate in any form) or health care practitioners. It is notenough, in other words, to abolish FGM, there is need for a replacementceremony that would be acceptable to the communities, to the mothers, andto the girls themselves. (1999) reportedon follow-up studies dealing with female circumcision in 39 patientsmanaged at the university College Hospital in Ibadan, Nigeria over a ten-year period of time. At the same time, Igwegbe and Egbuonu (2 ) noted that the deep-seated nature of the practice is apparent from the fact that even amongthese women who are more highly educated than many rural women, and evenamong a group with a high level of secondary education, there was stillsome continuation of the practice of manipulating the female genitalia ofthe infants. (1987). This cannot be attributed to Islamic culture, although manywould like to do so. In through the side door: Analyzing in reAnikwata under U.S. The authors recommended an educational campaign andstrong advocacy against female genital mutilation in order to continue totrend toward reducing the practice. In addition, the UN,the World Health Organization, and UNICEF issued a joint statementsupporting efforts to eliminate female genital mutilation, or femalecircumcision, because of the serious and deleterious health consequencesfor women and girls. The initial ruling was thatthe daughter could receive asylum, but that the mother must return toNigeria (Lazarus, 2 ). Women have been seenas maintaining the honor of their family by being virgins and faithfulwives, while they have been seen as bringing shame upon their families ifthey engage in sexual behavior outside of proper marital relations.Clearly, then, FGM as a means to dull women's sexual sensation, desire,interest, and enjoyment can be seen as a means to protect the honor of thefamily by assisting the woman in maintaining a lack of interest ininappropriate sexual behavior. Female genital mutilation. In their report, also from Nigeria, Igwegbe and Egbuonu (2 ) notedthat the most common complication for the mothers they saw at theirteaching hospital was dystocia. Therefore, thewomen who did perform FGM on their children, or have it performed, may havebeen part of the group who did not continue participating in the study.
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