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LINGUISTICS & WRITTEN COMPOSITION.
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Analysis of systems of language, formal & informal, spoken & written language.... More...
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Paper Abstract:
Analysis of systems of language, formal & informal, spoken & written language.
Paper Introduction:
Effects of Linguistics on Written Composition
Naomi S. Baron (1981) has commented that since the birth of nineteenth century comparative philology, the position of writing in linguistic analysis has tended to be tenuous at best. Most of the classical linguists made the primacy of speech in linguistic analysis overt and the discipline has tended to restrict its inquiry to spoken language. Written materials have been introduced into analysis only where necessary for diachronic study. Over time, however, says Baron (1981), many linguists have come to the conclusion that spoken, written, and sign languages should be seen as different linguistic means or modes of representing human experiences which people find it necessary to convey to one another. Baron (1981, p. 72) quotes Sapir in defining language as "a purely human and non-instinctive method of
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In colocational errors, first language interference isobserved when the learner assumes that the English or second language wordcolocates in the same manner as its translation equivalent in the firstlanguage. While cleft constructions are generally found to be rare inboth speech and writing in English, they occur with very high frequency notin particular genres but in specific discourse types. In part,this shift represents an at least partial rethinking of some of Chomsky's(1975) central theoretical tenets. Text organization and transfer: The case of ArabESL learners. They consider communication to be impacted by both "print code"and "non-print code." In other words, those linguistic competencies whichare critical in writing are somewhat different than the linguisticcompetencies necessary for effective speech. True writing in the Bloomfieldian sense is thatwhich can be used to fill the same semantic functions as spoken language(Baron, 1981). When people read written text aloud, they tendto use intonational cues to identify the beginning of new paragraphs and/ornew topics. Baron (1981) has noted that the critical difference between spokenand written linguistic representation and the difference from which anumber of definite characteristics can be derived is the proximity betweenthe sender and receiver. Language and Writing:Applicationsof Linguistics to Rhetoric and Composition. Ellis (1992) suggests that a syntactic code can be observed inwritten discourse. (1994). (1992). This report will examine the literature thatdescribes the effects of linguistics on written composition, demonstratingthat written composition is as significant a manifestation of language asis speech. 2 1) notes that "it is particularly easy to be detached inwriting because the interpersonal channel is suppressed." The most highlyskilled writers do involve readers through the use of dialogue and featuresextracted from the pragmatic code in which language is linked to experienceand reasoning is both subjective and organic. Naturalness and the notion of cohesion in EFLwriting classes. The features studied are: 1) loosepackaging of information; 2) repetition and rephrase; and 3) absence ofmetalingual organizers. Writing, unlike face-to-face speech, isalmost invariably planned. Writing Across Languages:Analysis of L2 Texts. Many speakers transfer rhetoricalpatterns from their mother tongue to a second language in writing; Connorand Kaplan (1986) noted this early on, stating that there is often a verystriking set of differences between the paragraph organizations of speakersof various languages. Ellis(1992, p. From the perspective of linguistics, however, Chomsky (1975)insists on studying language with respect to the separation of thegrammatical sequences which are the sentences of the language from theungrammatical sequences which are not sentences of the language. Rhetorical redundancy, for example, is viewed byFakhri (1994) as typical of Arabic speakers and as highly influential indetermining composition structure and "style." In discussing these variations within English, Nelson (1997) and Kirk(1997) both indicate that features of English sentences and paragraphstructure are used as markers of register, which is not necessarily thecase in other languages or language groups. Hillsdale, N.J.:Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Writtencommunication tends to be highly integrated, detached, and planned, and toemphasize literacy as opposed to the oral components of language. Chomsky (1975) has offered some interesting comments applicableherein. In written language, the paragraph is the most identifiabledemarcation of a topic. Bloomington: IndianaUniversity Press. International Review of Applied Linguistics in LanguageTeaching, 32 (1), 78 - 87. The article is an excellent example of the variations in theeffects of language and dialect upon written composition style andpresentation. These cleft constructions, suggests Nelson (1997), alsoaccount for some of the difficulties that L1 learners have in masteringsecond languages. In writtendiscourse, intonational pitch may well be implicit in the organization ofparagraphs which are described by Ellis (1992) as formal and cohesiveentities. Similar comments have beenadvanced by Fakhri (1994), who states that many L[sub2] learners (includingarabic EFL learners) tend to translate or transfer first language textorganization features into their English or other second language writing. Lexical choice: Towards writing problematicword lists. Nevertheless, Chomsky (1975) doesbelieve there is some connection between the structure of language and itspurpose, including communicative function. Finn (1995) believes that good writing, regardless of the language ofchoice, is syntactically predictable and semantically not predictable.Using the cloze methodology, this particular researcher identified agrammar of cohesion which emerges when complex formal writing is examined.Additionally, this particular researcher tends to validate some ofChomsky's (1975) suggestions regarding the importance of syntax as anormative influence over both written and spoken discourse. Written compositions byfirst- and second-language students are examined to determine the effectsof language primacy upon lexical choice. Unlikespoken discourse, writing lacks feedback from receivers. Ellis (1992) has pointed out that when written communication isexamined by linguists, what tends to emerge is the recognition of a greateremphasis on coherence in discourse itself. Nelson presents data that suggests that while cleft constructions aregenerally very rare in both speech and writing, they occur with very highfrequency not in particular genres but in very specific discourse types.The study is useful in identifying some of the specific effects ofdiscourse on written composition, particular with respect to BritishEnglish. Specifically, Kirk (1997)states that in the Hallidayan sense of register, significantly differentfrequencies of subordinate clauses tend to function as markers of "mode" inthat they distinguish speech from writing, and also of "tenor" in that theydistinguish formal from informal situations of both speech and writing.Kirk's (1997) study examined the use of subordinate clauses in English andconcludes that the major demarcation between different registers is thatbetween speech and writing. (1975) Reflections on Language. International Review of Applied Linguistics in LanguageTeaching, 3 (1), 45 - 51. (1997). This is because each natural language has a finite number ofphonemes and each sentence is represented as a finite sequence of thesephonemes. Itwas Kaplan's posture that linguists needed to reassess the original conceptof writing and reflect on its broader application within the field oflinguistics. New York:Pantheon. Effects of Linguistics on Written Composition Naomi S. This insistenceon grammatical accuracy at the direct expense of cohesion and coherence ledto the evaluation of written linguistic competency on the part of suchlearners in terms of errors and error rates -- and not on the basis ofcommunication content and "message." Meaning and logic -- values that areinherently necessary in written as well as spoken discourse -- were largelyignored. Chomsky considerslanguage to be a set (finite or infinite) of sentences finite in length andconstructed out of a finite set of elements. Particularly useful inthe present case is his discussion of coherence and communication codes. 2 1), "allows more information to beintegrated into a sentence and also favors more abstract conceptualizationbecause it increases the role of nouns in idea units." Research on writing as a form of language and linguistic analysis hasnot received as much attention or emphasis as other components such asphonology and syntax. Nelson, G. Baron (1981, p. It is differentiated from speech, alsolinguistic, but highly ephemeral and capable of auditory representation.Thus, the critical differences between writing and speech are in the areasof durability or permanence and mode of representation. Ellis, D.G. Writing enables thecommunicator to select a form of topicality or topic content as it isexpressed in propositions, schemes, lexical items, issues and events, andso forth. Baron (1981) has commented that since the birth ofnineteenth century comparative philology, the position of writing inlinguistic analysis has tended to be tenuous at best. The most obvious form of first languageinterference is assumed synonymity where the learner tends to assume that alexical term in English (or any other second language) has the samereference, connotation, and register as its translation equivalent in thefirst language. (eds.) (1986). The writer's presentation says Baron (1981), isgenerally more cautiously and reflectively formulated than that of thespeaker. Raskin and Weiser (1987) provided a serious attempt to apply thetheories of linguistics to the teaching of rhetoric and composition in theclassroom. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 29(1), 45 - 61. In this general linguistics text, baron describes the ways in whichwriting can be factored out from other durable visual representations,classification of a written language, uses of written language, and therelationship between phoneticism and pictorial writing. When learning a second language, most speakers andcommunicators acquire a limited vocabulary while mastering the soundsystem. Lexical errors tend to be most common among secondlanguage learners. Detachment in written textmore often than not results from nominalizations and the passive voice.Nominalization, says Ellis (1992, p. This is a good general text focused on the attempt to identify andapply recent (pre-199 ) findings in linguistics to the teaching of rhetoricand composition in the classroom. Cleft constructions in spoken and written English.Journal of English Linguistics, 25(4), 34 -349. Baron (1981) has commented that written language cannot exploit thesuprasegmental or paralinguistic features which accompany spoken language.The written code must in some way compensate for the information that wouldotherwise be lost in a transcription of spoken language. In spontaneouscommentaries as opposed to more formal written discourse, cleftconstructions are much more commonplace and are used for specific purposes. L[sub2] learners(students learning a second language) have typically been trained to writeerrorless compositions no matter how disintegrated they were becausegrammatically accuracy was the tacit objective of writing. Ellis (1992) argues that an examination of structural markers oftopicality in written discourse shows similarities between this form ofcommunication and speech. Discourse-oriented instruction, whichdemands cohesion and coherence in all linguistic productions, is emergingas a new strategy for teaching EFL learners. He also considers the variations in internal, textual logic thatare identified when compositions written by L[sub2] learners are evaluated,and the effects of variations in generative composition rules on theacquisition of written competency in a second language. There is evidence that this also occurs in naturalistic speechas verbal interactants highlight topics phonologically. The study addresses the question of whether Arab ESL learnerstransfer Arabic text organization features (an artifact of both languageand culture) into English writing. In cleft constructions, a sentence is split to highlight one ofits elements. Annotated Bibliography: Linguistics and Written Composition Baron, N.S. Farghal (1992) examined this issue in the context of English forForeign Learners (EFL) classes, with particular attention to naturalness ofexpression and the notion of cohesion in writing. Most of theclassical linguists made the primacy of speech in linguistic analysis overtand the discipline has tended to restrict its inquiry to spoken language.Written materials have been introduced into analysis only where necessaryfor diachronic study. There is a strong visual component to all writtenlanguage and paragraphs in particular, given that they have clearlyidentifiable beginnings and endings and utilize visual features to ensurethat the reader (or recipient of communication) will readily grasp theimplied associations. The authors believe thatlinguistics can help understand problems and errors related to diction,agreement, spelling, dangling modifiers, fragments, sentence structure,syntactic variation and clarity, conciseness, grammatical and lexicalcohesion, and coherence. He argued that manylinguists considered functionalism a doctrine which held that the use oflanguage influences its form. (1992). In discussing the experiences of second language learners,Connor and Kaplan (1986) conclude that the writing traditions, patterns,and expectations of a primary language tend to be extremely persistent andhighly influential in shaping written communication and composition in thesecond language. The transfer of second language competence from the spoken to thewritten word is a difficult task, suggesting both the persistence of firstlanguage rules and the inherent complexity of more formal writtendiscourse. Journal of EnglishLinguistics, 25(4), 349 - 365. The authors maintain that composition writing canbe divided into specific stages. Speech, Writing, and Sign. It was useful for identifying criticaltheory. Farghal (1992) argues that this approach is not adequate to the taskof facilitating the mastery of the tasks associated with written discourseand what is not taking place is a shift from form to function. Chomsky sees language as a self-contained formal system used moreor less incidentally for communication. Cohesion is achieved through internal lexical tieswhile logical reasoning and hypotactic structure is also present. Others, including Fakhri (1994), agree and have suggestedthat most learners transfer features from the first language (L1) to thesecond language (L2) and/or even avoid certain L1 structures or experiencea delay in the restructuring of an interlanguage rule. Nelson (1997) studies cleft constructions in spoken and writtenEnglish. Chomsky (1975) remarked on the multivocal uses of the term"functional" as it applies to linguistic analysis. Included in these purposes are the introduction of the theme of talk, anexplanation of the context in which the theme will be discussed, and todirect the listener's attention to a change of theme. The text provides an alternative to theoriesthat emphasize the role of culture in shaping written discourse. Ellis's general overview of written and spoken discourse providesinsight into script-based semantics, variations in structural relationswhen oral discourse is transferred to written communication formats, andcontemporary theories of language and linguistics. Zughail (1991) believes that in most languages, auniversal principle of simplification including the use of superordinateterms, approximation, synonymy, transfer, and circumlocution or paraphrasecan be observed. 72) quotes Sapir in defining language as "apurely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions,and desires by means of a system of voluntarily produced symbols." As botha formal system and an informal one, language is as productive in thewritten as in the vocal mode. While Chomsky has argued that language use (i.e., communication) isof little interest to him, he also claimed that human beings have orpossess a set of "tacit" rules regarding grammar in written as well asspoken discourse that is biologically grounded. This collection of ten papers provides a research framework for theserious investigation of Kaplan's thesis that there is a relationshipbetween rhetorical arrangement and the writer's thought patterns asdetermined by his native culture. He believes that all naturallanguages in both their spoken and written forms are languages in thissense. Using a cross-cultural perspective, thevarious authors consider such topics as pattern transfer in written secondlanguage compositions, simple versus complex written discourse, andcontrastive rhetoric and text type. Chomsky, N. From Language to Communication. Connor, U., and Kaplan, R. Speech is face-to-face communication whilewriting is used when the sender and receiver are separated by somecombination of time and distance. Norwood, N.J.: Ablex. Over time, however, says Baron (1981), manylinguists have come to the conclusion that spoken, written, and signlanguages should be seen as different linguistic means or modes ofrepresenting human experiences which people find it necessary to convey toone another. (1981). Indeed, these authors argue thatwritten composition is more difficult to master in a first language thanspeech -- which can be ungrammatical, rule-devoid or violating, and stillsufficient informative and expressive. These stages are planning (goal andaudience analysis as well as gathering information), drafting, and revising(identifying and correcting errors in addition to achieving coherence andcohesion). In writtendiscourse, cleft constructions are used to focus a reader's attention on atheme, but there are other strategies available for organizing writtencomposition. Farghai, M. Amajor result of this strategy was that the speech and the writtenproductions of EFL students was overshadowed by adherence to grammaticalrules. Kirk, J.M. Raskin, V., and Weisner, I. Reading, Ma.: Addison-Wesley. (1987). (1997). These findings suggest that in second language classrooms, equalattention should be given to writing as well as mastery of spoken languageconventions. Fakhri (1994) believes that most investigations of the effect of L1on L2 have been conducted at the levels of phonology and syntax, and mosthave also tended to be focused until recently on speech as opposed towritten communication and composition. Interference is not found in the form of lexical shift,but takes the forms of assumed synonymity, derivativeness, literaltranslation, and ideomaticity. Chomsky distinguishesbetween competence and performance and suggests that in order to understandperformance (such as writing), it is important to understand the structurethat generates performance. Fakhri, A. Zughail (1991), in reporting on the study of lexical choice amongArabic-speaking English learners, contended that first languageinterference is a major variable in lexical choice in both speech andwritten discourse. The study highlights the ways inwhich language shapes and informs written composition with respect to styleand word choices.----------------------- 1 Baron (1981) considers writing to be a durable linguistic visualrepresentation of experience. Because written compositions are more formally executed anddeveloped -- in comparison to speech and verbal communication -- suchcommunication and compositions have the capacity to be more complex; thisvery complexity, of course, makes the acquisition of fluency and competencyin a second language more difficult. The author hypothesized that these features,embedded in culture, are persistent when mastering a new form of writtencommunication. Kirk describes the use of subordinate clauses in English as markersof register. This study considers the issue of lexical choice, an area that may beclassified under interlanguage semantics, as it impacts uponvocabulary/word choice in written composition. Consequently, it is predictable that written language isgenerally stylistically more formal than spoken language. Connor and Kaplan(1986) argued that there is a relationship between rhetorical arrangementand the writer's thought patterns as determined by his native culture. It is her thesisthat written language has an existence separate from spoken language andadmits patterns of variation while referring to the same semantic domains.The text is useful in providing an overview of the effects of linguisticson written composition. Subordinate clauses in English. The author addresses the question of how EFL instructors have tendedto focus on grammatical accuracy as opposed to integration of content anddiscourse. In this light, grammatical rules were taught to EFL studentsimplicitly by disguising them in pedagogically-contrived language orexplicitly by means of a focus on the generative power of these rules. While Chomsky (1975) tends to use the termfunctional as equivalent to "well-designed," Baron (1981) argues that inthe discourse interpretation of function, we tend to identify factorswithin the production and reception of a linguistic message and to thenindicate which role those factors might serve in the act of communication.Written language exists distinct from spoken language but refers to thesame semantic domains. While punctuationand paragraphing are typical methods used in written composition torestructure this information, parallel sentence structure or use of foreignwords are also commonplace techniques found in written composition. Chomsky (1975) does point outthat not all linguistic exchanges (in the form of speech or writing) areintended to communicate information, feelings, or needs. (1991). Zughail, M.R.
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