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DREYFUSS AFFAIR.
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Examines event in terms of French anti-semitism & The Third Republic. The arrest, conviction & imprisonment of Captain Alfred Dreyfuss; efforts to clear him.... More...
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Paper Abstract:
Examines event in terms of French anti-semitism & The Third Republic. The arrest, conviction & imprisonment of Captain Alfred Dreyfuss; efforts to clear him.
Paper Introduction:
ANTI-SEMITISM, THE DREYFUS AFFAIR & THE THIRD REPUBLIC
This research paper traces the course of the Dreyfus Affair in the French Third Republic between 1894 and 1906 and examines the cardinal role played by anti-Semitism in its origin and development. Captain Alfred Dreyfus (1859-1935), son of a wealthy Jewish-Alsatian textile millowner, and a member of the French Army's General Staff, was convicted in 1894 and again in 1899 of treason by military courts. He was originally given a life sentence. He was stripped of his rank and officially degraded. He served nearly five years' imprisonment on Devil's Island before he was pardoned by the President of the Republic in 1899. Even though the evidence against Dreyfus was insufficient to warrant his conviction, it took his family and other defenders (Dreyfusards) 12 years before France's highest
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Civiliancontrol over the Army, which had acted throughout the Affair much like astate within a state, was greatly enhanced. AntiSemitism From Its European Roots to the Holocaust. Many leadingintellectuals and professionals rallied around Clemenceau, Zola, Scheurer-Kestner and other core Dreyfusards. letter and other spurious,tendentious and hearsay materials, which were withheld from Dreyfus'defense counsel Edgar Demange in violation of French law, but whichpersuaded the court to convict Dreyfus unanimously of treason. leftfor you;" and Dreyfus was the only Jew on the General Staff (Johnson 23).The D. This attack on a leading intellectual icon helped bring togethera large part of La Belle Epoque's leading luminaries and the left, led bySocialist deputy and philosophy professor Jean Jaures who on January 22,1898 castigated the government for the "equivocation . Dreyfus was arrested on October 15, 1894. In a broader sense, the Dreyfus Affair, the struggle for andagainst revision of the Dreyfus verdicts, shook the foundations of theThird Republic and represented the most divisive and passionate controversyof fin de siecle France. The second military court martial held in Rennes in Brittany (August7-September 9, 1899) was a farce. Anti-Semitism was only one of many factors but was nonethelessan important cause of Dreyfus' arrest and conviction and certainlyprevented earlier correction of what today appears to have been a blatantmiscarriage of justice. Zola saidin J'accuse this was because "if the truth is buried underground, it swellsand grows and becomes so explosive that the day it bursts, it blowseverything wide open" (Pages 52). de Boisdeffre. France's humiliating military defeat byPrussia/Germany; and the internal disorder which led to, and ultimatelyresulted in, the repression by the French state of the 1871 Paris Commune.The right of center coalition which founded the Third Republic alienatedthe working class and only barely prevented the restoration of a monarchy.The Constitution of 1875 featured a strong Parliament consisting of aChamber of Deputies elected by universal suffrage, a conservative,indirectly elected Senate and a weak executive. . Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1965.Shirer, William L. Actually, the government and the Armymade a series of fatal errors, which unfolded much in the manner of Greektragedy. Most Jews, apartfrom Dreyfus' family and a few others, remained on the sidelines, fearfulof being tarnished with the brush of disloyalty. Cavaignac remained convinced of Dreyfus' guilt but thegovernment was forced to permit the civilian courts to review the verdict.Henry committed suicide in prison, and Esterhazy fled abroad where he lateradmitted to being a German spy. lies andcowardice of the charges against Zola" (Chapman 13 ). A People Apart The Jews in Europe 1789-1939. Hoffman said "a century of revolution had left Francewith a republican constitution and a political tradition that most citizensregarded with ambivalence if not outright hostility" (54). On September 19,1899, Dreyfus' sentence was commuted to time served and he was released. It was much more difficultto brush off the powerful Scheurer-Kestner who during the summer and fallof 1897 questioned various high officials concerning the case withoutbetraying Picquart's role. The new form of Anti-Semitism which emerged after 187 was based onthe proposition that the Jews were the enemy of la patrie. The decision to arresthim was made by Minister of War General Auguste Mercier on therecommendation of the French Chief of Staff R. Drumont and his vitriolically anti-Semitic dailynewspaper, La Libre Parole, highlighted disproportionately the role ofJewish financiers in the crash in 1882 of the Catholic Union Generale Bankand the machinations of Jewish intermediaries in the Panama Affair.Wistrich said anti-Semitic writings in the last quarter of the 19th centurydepicted the Jews as "strangers, intruders, cosmopolitan financiers, . Oxford: Oxford Up, 1999.Wistrich, Robert S. He was then shipped to Devil's Isleoff the Coast of Guiana where he was held in solitary confinement, allowedto speak to no one and often manacled. Dreyfus Case Phase I: Arrest, Conviction and Imprisonment The number one concern of France's national security establishment inthe 189 s was German militarism. Investigation revealedthat Esterhazy was substantially in debt. In September 1894, DB'sprincipal investigator was Major Hubert Henry who received from a Frenchcharwoman who had access to waste paper from the desk of the Germanmilitary attache in Paris, Colonel Max von Schwartzkoppen a bordereau, anunsigned, undated and torn handwritten list of documents containing Frenchmilitary information. Dreyfus' arrest, hisidentity, his photograph and his religion were leaked to La Libre Parole byan unidentified Army staff officer "who wanted the predictably resultingpublic clamor to force the Army to prosecute Dreyfus" (Hoffman 4).Fictitious accounts of a Jewish-inspired plot to undermine the Republicwere spread by the sensationalist Paris press. In September 1896 the Paris newspaper L'Eclair suggested that acompelling but secret case against Dreyfus existed and should be madepublic. ManyJews assimilated and shared in the middle class prosperity and economicgrowth of 19th century France. Much ofrural France associated Jews with the adverse consequences of economicmodernization. London: Blandford P, 1966.Pages, Alain, Ed. Johnson saidde Pellieux's "whole approach . Vital said the French CatholicChurch, especially the Jesuits and the Assumptionist order, activelypromoted Judaeophobia "to push back the tide of sectarianism andliberalism" (543). . Even after when anti-Jewish riots broke out throughout France in January 1898, Hoffman said the"most common response" among Jews "was to close the shutters and let thestorm pass" (546). ANTI-SEMITISM, THE DREYFUS AFFAIR & THE THIRD REPUBLIC This research paper traces the course of the Dreyfus Affair in theFrench Third Republic between 1894 and 19 6 and examines the cardinal roleplayed by anti-Semitism in its origin and development. Conclusion The Dreyfus case and the Dreyfus Affair stirred up a particularlyvirulent form of anti-Semitism that plagued the Third Republic until itslast breath. Left wingthinkers such as Charles Fourier and Pierre-Joseph Proudhon viewed "theJews as the representatives, manipulators, promoters, and beneficiaries ofthe bourgeois economy," who exploited the proletariat (Vital 343). However, Captain Louis Cuignet discovered there was noconfession. Henry undermined Picquartthat eventually resulted in Picquart's transfer to the Tunisian frontier.Torn between his loyalty to the Army and his sense of justice and concernedabout his potential safety, Picquart confided his discoveries to lawyerLouis Leblois who in turn briefed the Vice-President of the Senate, AugusteScheurer-Kestner in July 1897. Contemporaneously, theArmy through well-placed leaks to the press orchestrated a campaign ofcalumny aimed at the so-called Jewish Syndicate which allegedly financedMathieu's efforts to free Dreyfus and alleged subversive machinations byFree Masons which was targeted at Scheurer-Kestner, a Protestant. Heand his family accepted what was in effect a pardon because of his poorhealth. Nevertheless, in 1896-1897 some cracks began to appear in the facadearound the Army's case against Dreyfus. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, New ed. TheEsterhazy verdict was generally popular. By holding one document up to the light and viewing thewatermarks on it, Cuignet determined that two different letters between vonSchwartzkoppen and Panizzardi must have been pieced together by Henry whohad pencilled in Dreyfus' name. He servednearly five years' imprisonment on Devil's Island before he was pardoned bythe President of the Republic in 1899. In the process, Shirersaid "families were torn asunder, old friendships were destroyed, duelswere fought, governments overturned, [and] careers ruined" (55). .rapacious parasites, unscrupulous parvenus, or as base, immoral, cowardly,treacherous and dishonest" (129-13 ). Hoffmansaid "the court's inquiries tore the Dreyfus confession story to shreds andfound abundant reason to regard the rest of the evidence as worthless"(27). He was stripped of his rank and officially degraded. Meanwhile, Mathieu independently learnedfrom a banker that the handwriting on the bordereau, which had also beenleaked to the press, was Esterhazy's. By a five to two vote, the assembledofficers found Dreyfus, who had been brought back to France, guilty oftreason again but under extenuating circumstances which resulted in areduction of his sentence to 1 years. Schechter said "the people ofParis went wild with joy" over the verdict (124). Felix Faure, the President, letslip in an interview with an intermediary of Mathieu's that the secretdossier had been illegally shown to the Cherche-Midi court but not thedefense. A general amnesty ended all collateral litigation. It was relatively easy for the government and the Army to dismiss theinquiries of the Dreyfus family and his lawyer. Consequences For Republicans, the final resolution of the Dreyfus Affairdemonstrated that the nation was more committed to seeking justice for awronged individual than in protecting institutional reputations. Through an internal inquiry headed by Brigadier General Georges dePellieux and the followup court martial of Esterhazy held on January 1 -11,1898 the Army closed ranks and cleared Esterhazy of treason. When the seven officers whocomprised the in camera court martial convened near the Cherche-Midi prisonon December 19-22, 1894 appeared to be unconvinced of the flimsy evidenceagainst Dreyfus, Henry with the approval of his superiors put together asecret dossier on Dreyfus. He shared his findingswith de Boisdeffre, Deputy Chief of Staff General Charles-Arthur Gonse andMinister of War Jean-Baptiste Billon. Some intellectuals opposedrevision, including literary critic Jules Lemaitre and painters ClaudeMonet, Auguste Renour and Edgar Degas. When Cavaignac interrogated Henry on August3 , he confessed to these alterations which he said he committed for thegood of the state. According to Vital, before 1898 the left wasdisinterested in the case which they dismissed "as no more than a quarrelbetween one segment of the bourgeoisie and another" (542). Although Zola's trial on February 7-23, 1898 ended in his conviction(which was subsequently overturned on a technicality), testimony concerningthe defective nature of the evidence against Dreyfus crept in, despite theefforts of the presiding judge to keep it out, and appeared less thanconvincing when exposed to the light of day. In the latter half amillion middle class French investors in the de Lesseps Panama CanalCompany were bilked by it and its promoters of $3 million and sizeablebribes were paid to many deputies and officials to obtain governmentsupport and loans. Picquart satisfied himself thatthe handwriting on the bordereau was Esterhazy's. It contained the D. However, the onecommon denominator which held France together was nationalism orpatriotism. Public opinion was solidly convincedof his treachery. The first grand faux pas was committed by Godefroy Cavaignac, the newWar Minister under the government that came into power in mid-1898.Cavaignac had been critical of the previous Meline government's indecisiveapproach. By the end of 1897, the Dreyfus case had turnedinto the very public Dreyfus Affair. Collapse of the Third Republic. The anti-Dreyfusards refused to quit, however, and launched ascurrilous attack on the President of the Criminal Chamber, Louis Loew, onthe grounds that as the descendant of German Jews he was biased in favor ofDreyfus. France and the Dreyfus Affair. Second, the previous Meline government decided to try Zola for acrime against the state, its alleged order to de Pellieux to clearEsterhazy. was deliberately unfair" (1 7). In an effort to blacken Picquart's reputation,and to bolster the government's case, Henry had begun in September-October1896 to 'nourish' the file against Dreyfus, by altering certain documentsand fabricating others. Emile Zola The Dreyfus Affair. France Under The Republic (187 -1939). In 1897 he informed de Boisdeffre and Gonse of hisactivities, thereby implicating them in the coverup. OnMarch 15, 1896 Picquart came into possession of an unstamped blue specialdelivery postcard, le petit bleu, which had been filched from vonSchwartzkoppen's overcoat in a Paris restaurant and which referred todocuments he expected to receive. Hoffman said "the audience was toounreceptive for it to have much immediate effect;" however, doubts aboutthe validity of the Dreyfus verdict were finally public (1 ). Then the tide began gradually to turn in favor of revision. Hoffman said for the average man on the street "the primaryembodiment of the national ideal was the Army" (64). Meanwhile, in a more significant development, Lieutenant ColonelMarie-Georges Picquart, a Catholic Alsatian and an anti-Semite but a highlyprofessional officer, was appointed to succeed Sandherr as head of DB. New York: Macmillan, 198 .Johnson, Douglas. Schectersaid "the Army, the Catholic press and the advocates of an autocratic past. The Third Republic was nearly toppled in 1888-1889 by a right-wing coup headed by a man on horseback, General Charles Boulanger, whosehesitation at critical moments (rather than effective Republicancountermeasures) doomed his movement. The growth of French anti-Semitism after 187 was inseparably linkedwith the growing pains of the Third Republic which was created under highlyinauspicious circumstances -- i.e. Suspicion eventually focused on Dreyfus because: thebordereau referred mostly to artillery, his field; the unwarrantedassumption was made that the spy was someone who had recently had exposureto a number of Army spheres, such as an officer-trainee on the GeneralStaff, a description which only Dreyfus and a few other officers fit; DBhad intercepted a letter from von Schwartzkoppen to the Italian militaryattache in Paris, Colonel Alessandro Panizzardi, which referred to maps ofFrench fortifications near Nice which "that scoundrel [canaille] D. He told the Chamber of Deputies on July 7, 1898 that Dreyfus'conviction had been supported by overwhelming secret evidence, which heoutlined, including an alleged confession by Dreyfus and some of thedocuments which had been forged and fabricated by Henry after the Cherche-Midi court martial. Edouard Drumont's La France juive (1886) popularized thetheory that the Jews had seized power in 1789 and were successfullysubverting French traditions and culture through their control over thefinances of the nation. Even though the evidence againstDreyfus was insufficient to warrant his conviction, it took his family andother defenders (Dreyfusards) 12 years before France's highest civil courtannulled his convictions in 19 6. entered into an unholy alliance under the covering banner ofnationalism" (1 4). Another new government referred the case to a United Cour deCassation which finally on June 3, 1899 annulled the verdict and remandedthe case to a new military court martial for retrial. . . The Dreyfus Trials. Successive Republicangovernments finally ended Catholic control over the public school system.Anti-semitism died down, only to revive in the turbulent 193 s and thriveduring the Vichy period. These included the rowdyLigue Antisemitique and the ultranationalistic Ligue des Patriotes formedby the poet-visionary Paul Deroulede who attempted a coup in March 1899 andwas exiled for 2 years. During 1898 several extremist organizations were formed and wereactively engaged in the effort to block revision. On September 26, 1898 after Cavaignac resigned, the Brissongovernment referred the possible revision of the Dreyfus verdict to thecivilian court of appeal (Cour de Cassation), whose Criminal Chamberdecided shortly thereafter grounds for reconsideration existed. . Most earlierhistorians tended to discount its importance. Phase IV: Imperfect Resolution (1899-19 6) After the Rennes verdict, wiser heads prevailed. Faures died inFebruary 1899 and was replaced as President by a revisionist, Emile Loubet.After the Rennes verdict, a Republican coalition headed by Premiere ReneWaldeck-Rousseau, took steps to end the Dreyfus Affair. letter was learned later to refer to an officer named Dubois.Handwriting experts initially could not agree whether Dreyfus was theauthor of the bordereau, but later a Paris police prefect so concludedafter he was told that other evidence implicated Dreyfus. It helped prevent disclosure of the illegal methodssecretly used by the French Army to fabricate evidence against Dreyfus andto coverup its misdeeds and to delay remedial action by the Frenchgovernment. More Than A Trial The Struggle Over Captain Dreyfus. Picquart was dismissed.Scheurer-Kestner lost re-election as Vice President of the Senate. Zola's message -- of"unscrupulous men taking advantage of their high positions to dupe a wholenation and to victimize a defenseless individual in order to protectthemselves" was, Schechter said, "stronger medicine than the French publicwished to hear" (117-118). For anti-Dreyfusards, Dreyfus remained a symbol ofthe pernicious influence of international Jewry and decadent liberalism.For many Jews, their faith in reliance on French law to protect theirliberties was only partially restored. Captain AlfredDreyfus (1859-1935), son of a wealthy Jewish-Alsatian textile millowner,and a member of the French Army's General Staff, was convicted in 1894 andagain in 1899 of treason by military courts. Phase III: Full-Scale Battle (1898-1899) From the late fall of 1897 until Dreyfus was pardoned in August 1899,the Dreyfus Affair exploded into the greatest cause celebre of the era. He was held andinterrogated at the Cherche-Midi prison in Paris. And on November 6, 1896 a well-known Jewish literary critic,Bernard Lazare, hired by Mathieu published a pamphlet, A Judicial Error:The Truth About the Dreyfus Affair. Trans. Phase II: Uphill Struggle for Revision (1895-1897) Despite the determined efforts of his brother Mathieu, little headwaywas made to clear Dreyfus in 1895-96. Its politicians alltoo frequently served only narrower vested interests and were frequentlynot only ineffective in governing the country but also venal. . Zionism gained many adherents as aresult of the Dreyfus Affair. Antisemitism. Dreyfus was clearly prejudiced by vicious anti-Semitic presscommentary before and during his court martial. It exposed and accentuated deep schisms in theFrench body politic and society and fundamental flaws in the ThirdRepublic's ability to govern. Thecontroversy was accompanied by an overall atmosphere of exaggeration, wildrumors, "misinformation, polemic . The Dreyfus Affair A National Scandal. Georges Clemenceau, aRadical politician, out of office since the Panama Affair, anti-clericaland fiercely Republican, invited the celebrated novelist Emile Zola, whohad incurred the wrath of the right and the Church by his realistic fictiondepicting the plight of the underclasses, to comment on the Esterhazyverdict, which he did in his famous J'accuse article in the January 13,1898 issue of Clemenceau's newspaper, L'Aurore. New York: Harper & Brothers, 194 .Chapman, Guy. The worst wave of anti-Semitism during theentire affair swept France in late January 1898. They included 1894 Minister of JusticeLudovic Trarieux, novelists Anatole France and Marcel Proust, poet CharlesPeguy, sociologist Emile Durkheim, scientists Emile Duclaux and HenryPoincare, educator Lucien Herr and many others. Trans. The Army Staff had Henry recruit Colonel Paty du Clam,Dreyfus' interrogator at the Cherche-Midi prison, as its clandestineintermediary to reassure Esterhazy, whose erratic behavior it sought tocontrol, of its support. The Jewish community in France wassmall, 8 -1 , by the 189 s, only .4 percent of the population. 1973.Brogan, D. Introduction: French Anti-Semitism and The Third Republic Traditional anti-Semitism had existed in France for many centuries.It was based on popular belief that the Jews were Christ-killers andengaged in ritual murder of Christians. French anti-Semitism played an important role in Dreyfus' originalarrest and conviction. The government and the Army stonewalled inquiries inParliament and the press on the grounds that the case was closed. New York: Simon & Shuster, 1969.Vital, David. According to Wistrich, "although violentanti-Semitic riots broke out in Alsace in 1848, there was no organizedantisemitic movement before 187 " (127). The shifting Republican center represented the middle classes anda vision of a liberal, secular, modernizing society. The Army's case was essentiallyreduced to its wrapping the flag around itself. Brogan said that during the formative decades of the Third Republic,"no Ministry would serve the general interest except at great politicalrisk" (167-168). W. In a humiliating ceremony, the Parade atthe Ecole de Guerre of January 5, 1895, Dreyfus was publicly degraded andstripped of his decorations and rank. The Army and itsright wing supporters continued their agitation against revision thatdelayed for five years definitive annulment of the verdicts against Dreyfuswhich was finally declared by the Cour de Cassation on July 12, 19 6.Dreyfus completed his service as an officer, served under fire during WorldWar I and died peacefully in 1935. Works CitedArendt, Hannah. Dreyfus wassentenced to life imprisonment. France was the first European nation to grant the Jews fullpolitical and legal rights -- in 1791. The Origins of Totalitarianism. Finzi added that "up until theearly 189 s anti-Semitism in France had little political importance" (2 ).It then took a highly virulent form that reached a zenith during theDreyfus Affair. En route, he was nearly lynched byan angry mob at the port of La Rochelle on January 18. The decisionto try Dreyfus was made by Mercier after consultation with the Cabinet.This 'rush to prosecute' was undoubtedly influenced by a number of factors,including Mercier's shaky political standing at the time. New York: Interlink Books, 1999.Hoffman, Robert L. The petit bleu was addressed to anotherFrench officer, Major Ferdinand Walsin-Esterhazy. The nation was suffused with the spirit ofrevanche, the recovery of the conquered provinces of Alsace and Lorraine.As France rearmed, her leaders and press were preoccupied with spymania.Counterespionage was the responsibility of the General Staff's SecondStatistical Bureau (Deuxiemebureau or DB). According to Hoffman, "theDreyfusards shared general values and attitudes, the products of modern,urban, bourgeois, French education and culture" (1 5). This was a formula forunstable government, which resulted in 12 cabinets between 1871 and 1879and 5 by 1914, only two of which before 19 6 lasted more than two years(Shirer 96). At Rennes, Merciersuggested that Dreyfus' conviction had been necessary in 1894 to preventwar between France and Germany, thus giving credence to the wild rumorswhich had circulated in the press that the Army had copies ofcorrespondence between the Kaiser and Dreyfus. . The country was sharply divided between Paris and thecountryside, between the forces who harked back to the ancien regime, theCatholic Church, the landed aristocracy and other traditional propertiedinterests and the Army on the right, and a disenchanted but growing leftwhich was divided among various socialist, anarchist and syndicalistfactions. New Haven, Yale UP, 1996.Schechter, Betty. . New York: Pantheon Books, 1992.----------------------- 18 Such imperfect justice as was eventuallymeted out to Dreyfus; and the steps taken to curb the excesses of the Armyand other anti-Dreyfusards which the Affair revealed represented a stepforward in stabilizing the Third Republic, but they left an unresolvedlegacy of discord and distrust among the contending factions and interestsinvolved. Seriousscandals involved very high officials and deputies, such as the WilsonScandal of 1887 and the Panama Scandal of 1892. Otherprominent Dreyfusards lost their positions, Leblois as a member of theParis bar, Joseph Reinach, a Jewish deputy his commission in the reserves,and a leading scientist, Eduoard Grimaux, his professorships. By resolving the affair, France moved forwardtoward modernization rather than backwards toward its lost past, but memoryof it continues to grip the French psyche. There is little question that the anti-Semitism of Henry'ssuperior, Colonel Jean Conrad-Sandherr, who had tried unsuccessfully toblock Dreyfus' appointment to the General Staff and the aristocratic castemindset of de Boisdeffre and other senior officers against Jews helpedresolve whatever doubts they may have had in favor of Dreyfus' guilt. To his chagrin, he found there waslittle interest in reconsidering Dreyfus' guilt. New York: Stein and Day, 1972.Finzi, Roberto. Eleanor Lemieux. Itwas marked by initial legal victories by the government and the Army whichdesperately sought to contain the truth concerning Dreyfus' conviction, butwhich in the longer run had the opposite effect. Historians havedisagreed as to how much of a role anti-Semitism, as opposed to merestupidity and carelessness, played in those decisions. Later historians such as Vital viewed it as the dominantfactor (542). He was originally given a lifesentence. (These rumors were neversubstantiated). Picquart's first publictestimony in favor of Dreyfus and against Esterhazy was impressive. Chapman said anti-Semitism"cannot be shown to have played a dominant part in the trial and arrest ofDreyfus" (2 ). . Von Schwartzkoppen in his posthumouslypublished memoirs in 193 told the world that Dreyfus had never spied forGermany. General de Boisdeffre in effect told the Zola jury they hadto choose between the honor of the Army and Dreyfus' possible innocence.The Assumptionist newspaper La Croix stated the right's point of view: "itis no longer a question of whether Dreyfus is innocent or guilty but onlywho will win, the friends of the Army or its foes" (Arendt 112). Maud Jackson. Jews were periodically reviled andpersecuted, restricted to ghettos and limited to occupations such as moneylending. acrimony and invective," anextraordinary display of Gallic passion and melodrama (Hoffman 16).
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