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GERMAN FOREIGN POLICY.
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Examines period 1933-1936. Hitler's world view. German weakness, low rish policies, aggression, dipolomacy, realignment in European balance of power.... More...
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Paper Abstract:
Examines period 1933-1936. Hitler's world view. German weakness, low rish policies, aggression, dipolomacy, realignment in European balance of power.
Paper Introduction:
GERMAN FOREIGN POLICY (1933-1936)
This research paper traces the evolution of German foreign policy during the first four years after Adolf Hitler became Chancellor of Germany on January 30, 1933. In 1933 and 1934 German foreign policy was marked by a series of incremental, opportunistic and relatively low risk moves, which reflected the priority given to Hitler to the consolidation of his internal position and Germany's secret rearmament. They were designed to exploit disunity and weakness among the European powers which might otherwise jeopardize the achievement of Nazi (National Socialist) Germany's long-term expansionist goals. Germany diplomacy was implemented by a combination of traditional and revolutionary methods, which achieved remarkable success, despite a major setback in Austria. In 1935 and 1936 German
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1933-1934 Hitler's primary focus during 1933 and the first part of 1934 was onstrengthening dictatorial Nazi rule inside Germany. Hitlerdetested this class and their cautious and conservative outlook but theywere useful to him, said Weinberg, in "making it seem that no radicalchange in German foreign policy was intended" (35). New York: Knopf, 1992.Churchill, Winston. Hitler came to power with what Weinberg called "aclearly formulated set of ideas on major issues of foreign policy," whichappeared in his mid-192 s autobiography Mein Kampf (1). New York: W. The Foreign Policy of Hitler's Germany Diplomatic Revolution in Europe, 1933-36. In March1933, Germany was presented with an offer from British Prime MinisterRamsey MacDonald which called for the European armies of no more than2 , men. Hitler began replacing some of the morecautious diplomats who had been dominating the Wilhelmstrasse" with Nazisor bypassing them with unofficial emissaries such as former champagnesalesman Joachim von Ribbentrop and the Nazi Party Foreign Organization,which became involved in subversive activities in Austria, Czechoslovakiaand elsewhere. The Origins of the Second World War. With funds, arms and vitriolic propaganda, the Germans in 1933 andthe first half of 1934 fomented subversion by Austrian Nazis against thegovernment of Austrian Chancellor Englebert Dollfuss. The sanctions, which did not include an oil embargo, andwere unaccompanied by military force, were ineffective. made it difficult toestablish a common front against any future German aggression" (41 ). Hitler 1889-1936 Hubris. However,its main emphasis was on making compromises with Hitler, i.e. A plebiscite in the coal rich Saar in January1935 showed 91 percent of the mostly German inhabitants supported itsreturn to Germany. Fischer said the Allies "made an enemy ofMussolini, strained relations with France, and . Norton, 1999.Shirer, William L. W. He had an uncanny instinct for the lackof resolve of his adversaries. In those years, Germany, primarily as a result of Hitler's bold,shrewd and manipulative diplomacy, seized the initiative in Europeanaffairs and wreaked a significant shift in the strategic balance of powerin its favor. In pursuit ofimperial glory, Mussolini engaged in outright aggression and atrocities,including the use of poison gas, against a helpless African nation, whichoutraged British public opinion. Hitler said "it isan iron principle the weaker one falls so that the strong one gains life"(Kershaw 289). Germany had suffered fromwidespread political turmoil after World War I and the hyperinflation of1922-1923. New York: Atheneum, 1966.Weinberg, Gerhard L. In 1934, the Soviet Unionjoined the League of Nations, called for the adoption of collectivesecurity measures against Germany and began discussions with France whichultimately led to the Franco-Soviet defense pact of May 1935. The ThirdReich was diplomatically isolated and militarily impotent" (2 9). Soviet Union. . 1935 and 1936 presented him with glittering possibilities of whichhe took full advantage. According to Kershaw, "GreatBritain . Benito Mussolini'sItaly had been a signatory to the 1925 Locarno Treaty (Locarno) togetherwith France, Great Britain and Germany, which guaranteed the integrity ofall the frontiers of western Europe (but not those of Austria or EasternEurope). Hitler's Unconventional Diplomacy. Hitler's first cabinet contained a majority ofappointees from other non-Nazi rightist parties. Polish Non-Aggression Pact. The union of Austria and Germany was forbidden under theterms of the Versailles Treaty. that Germany wouldnot give the appearance of sabotaging the conference" (45-46). Dollfuss' successors arrested many of thecoup plotters. Churchill called Hitler's actions in theRhineland crisis "the greatest gamble of all" which "succeeded brilliantly"(212). According to Weinberg, Hitler, because of America'sracial mixture and lack of preparedness, "concluded that the United Stateswas really a very weak country" (21). Abyssinia. Nazi Germany A New History. This included theliquidation of German communists and other left wing opponents of theregime, the eradication of civil liberties, the establishment ofconcentration camps, the abolition of all non-Nazi political parties, stormtrooper violence against German Jews, other forms of religious persecutionand elimination of regional and local government autonomy. In 1935 and 1936 German foreign policybecame more adventuresome. Poland had been reconstituted byVersailles and awarded large slices of pre-1914 German territory in UpperSilesia and the Polish Corridor which connected East Prussia with theBaltic port and German populated Free City of Danzig which was administeredby the League of Nations. He viewed politicsand international affairs as a mortal struggle between the superior whiteAryan or Nordic race, and inferior or non-European races, of which thelowest and most dangerous were the Jews, racially polluting parasites. The British government took thefirst halting steps toward improving its airpower in late 1934. J. Due to acombination of hesitation by the French military and political leadershipand British unwillingness to risk war over a clear violation of Locarno,the western Allies did nothing other than protest. Conclusion German foreign policy under Hitler's leadership had brought about afundamental realignment in the balance of power in Europe without firing ashot and at minimal cost. On October 14, 1933, Hitler, using as a pretext a moderate hardeningin British disarmament terms (following intelligence reports of Germany'ssecret rearmament), withdrew Germany from the Geneva talks and the Leagueof Nations as well. The German aim was to weakenFrance's system of eastern alliances, the Little Entente, between her andCzechoslovakia, Rumania and Yugoslavia. In late July, Hitler once again overrode the advice of the ForeignMinistry and supported Francisco Franco's revolt against the Spanishrepublic by providing transports to airlift Franco's Moroccan army to themainland, and later the Condor Legion and other assistance. . Tensionsrose in the spring of 1933 over German unrest in Danzig. On the eve of a visit by ForeignSecretary Sir John Simon and Lord Privy Seal Anthony Eden to Berlin, Hitlersprung the first of his series of Saturday surprises by announcing in mid-March 1935 that Germany had reintroduced conscription, intended to build anarmy of 55 , men and already had a powerful airforce (which he boastedto Eden and Simon in late March 1935 was equal to the RAF), all clearviolations of Versailles. TheGerman volk had the historic mission of destroying the Fatherland's twoprincipal enemies, 'Jewish Bolshevism,' and France, "the European home ofthe concept of human equality" (Weinberg 4). The fate of anyone who opposed Hitler was dramaticallydemonstrated by the Night of the Long Knives, June 29-3 , 1934, when Hitlerwith the help of Hermann Goering, Heinrich Himmler's SS and the Wehrmachteliminated the leadership of the stormtroopers (SA) and killed a number ofprominent conservative foes of the regime. Hitler, who admired Mussolini's fascist rule in Italy, and who hadenvisaged Italy as a German ally in Mein Kampf, sought to diminish Italiansupport for Austria by offering to renounce the claims of the Germanminority in the Italian South Tyrol. Meanwhile, Stackelberg said "in the first year of his rule Hitler didhis best to present a moderate and reasonable face to the world" (157). Hitler's Germany. He providedjust enough aid to keep Franco from losing while helping to prolong theSpanish Civil War, which embroiled Italy, the Western powers and the USSRin Spain while Hitler prepared for further moves in Central and EasternEurope. In 1933 and 1934 German foreign policy was marked by aseries of incremental, opportunistic and relatively low risk moves, whichreflected the priority given to Hitler to the consolidation of his internalposition and Germany's secret rearmament. The degree of Hitler's foreknowledge of Dollfuss's murder isstill unclear, but the putsch was a miscalculation by him. Itshighpoint was his 'Peace Speech' to the Reichstag on May 17, 1933, whichShirer called "a masterpiece of deceptive propaganda" and in which Hitlerportrayed Germany as anti-war, in favor of disarmament provided parity wasobserved and uninterested in Germanizing other peoples (21 ). Its aims were to complete the destruction of theconstraints on German power established under the 1919 Treaty of Versailles(Versailles) and to free Germany's hands to expand in Central and EasternEurope. The relations with the UnitedStates got off to a rocky start in 1933 and remained poor thereafterbecause of Germany's default on its American debts, Schacht's financialmachinations and discriminatory trade practices which harmed Americanexports, and American revulsion against German antisemitism and other Nazihuman rights abuses. Simone de Couvreur Ferguson. Shirer said "Germany's position inthe world in the spring of 1933 could hardly have been worse. In this early period, Taylor said "they failed toallow for the fact that Hitler was a gambler who would play for high stakeswithout adequate resources" (73). Lord Lothian said,"after all, they [the Germans] were only going into their own backyard"(Fischer 411). Mussolini believedthat in January 1935 French Premier Pierre Laval had tacitly acquiesced inhis Ethiopian invasion. Germany's initial moves in foreign policy were dictated by the needto "avoid the risk of war-until she had restored her military strength"(Bullock 517). According to Fischer,"by the middle of 1934, . New Haven: Yale UP, 1978.Bullock, Alan. . UnderVersailles, Germany's army had been limited to 1 , men. The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich. Works CitedBaumont, Maurice. Hitler marched a small force into theRhineland on March 7, 1936, using as a pretext the ratification of theFranco-Soviet pact by the French Chamber of Deputies in February. In the early 193 s the Germansargued for parity with France, whose army was much larger. The talksremained deadlocked through the summer and early fall as the British kepttrying to find a formula which would be acceptable to Germany. New York: Continuum, 1995.Kershaw, Ian. Polish dictatorJozef Pilsudski held firm and reinforced the Polish garrison in Danzig.Hitler overrode his Foreign Ministry and promoted the negotiation of a non-aggression pact with Poland which was signed on January 26, 1934 because,according to Stackleberg, Hitler wanted "to weaken Polish ties with Franceand prevent any pre-emptive moves against German rearmament" (161). Although they were then the largestpolitical party in Germany, the Nazis never commanded a popular orlegislative majority. Hereinforced the Allies inclination to do nothing by his second great peacespeech of May 21, 1935 in the Reichstag, what Shirer called "honeyed wordsof peace, reason and conciliation," in which the Fuehrer said "Germanyneeds peace and desires peace," denied any plan to interfere inside Austriaor to annex it and renounced any further territorial claims in the West(287-286). On February 3,1933, Hitler told his senior military leaders of his plans to eliminatedemocracy, Marxism and pacificism and his intention to give first priorityto restoring Germany's military strength. The failure of the Allies to stand up to Hitler over hisincursion in the Rhineland was a shattering defeat because as Hitler'smilitary aide Alfred Jodl said at the 1946 Nuremberg War Crimes Trials,"the French covering force could have blown us to bits" (Shirer 295). P. Germany diplomacy was implemented by a combination oftraditional and revolutionary methods, which achieved remarkable success,despite a major setback in Austria. Baumont said "the abortivetakeover in Vienna was one of Hitler's rare blunders before 1939" (88). According to Weinberg, "care was exercised . . Collapse of the Stresa Front. Hitler cut off in 1933 the secret militarycollaboration with Russia which had existed since 1922. . Hitler's use of blatant falsehoodson the theory that 'the bigger the lie, the better,' and his cavalierattitude toward international treaties, which he regarded as mere scraps ofpaper to be discarded when their usefulness was past, constituted arevolutionary, non-traditional approach to diplomacy. They were designed to exploitdisunity and weakness among the European powers which might otherwisejeopardize the achievement of Nazi (National Socialist) Germany's long-termexpansionist goals. He told them "the most dangeroustime is that of the buildup of the armed forces" (Weinberg 27). Hitler and Stalin Parallel Lives. New York: Simon & Schuster, 196 .Stackelberg, Roderick. Largely to placate Mussolini, Hitlerhad gone along with Mussolini's meaningless Four Power Pact which wassigned by Britain, France, Italy and Germany in Rome on July 15, 1933.Hitler and Mussolini met in Venice on June 14-15, 1934. Weimar Germany had participatedin disarmament talks at Geneva with other European powers since 1925. trading itsacquiescence in German rearmament in return for German participation in anoverall European peace settlement. Anglo-German Naval Agreement of June 18, 1935. All that Hitler could do was to preach peace, getalong with his secret rearmament and wait and watch for opportunities"(28 ). However, the British and the French whomthey dragged along on their scheme to impose economic sanctions on Italyachieved little. Kershaw said this tepid response "amounted inHitler's eyes, to a triumph for boldness over timidity" (553). By January 1936 Mussoliniwas assuring Germany that Italy had no objection to increased Germaninfluence in Austria (Weinberg 264). He would soon be ready to indulge his more grandiose ambitionswhich, however, due to Germany's limited resources might not support theirattainment in the face of more determined and unified external opposition. Moreover, after Germany fortified the Rhineland,Bullock said "the French could no longer come to the aid of their EasternEuropean allies by an immediate invasion of Germany through thedemilitarized zone" (526). In the search for raw materialsand foodstuffs to fuel the growing German military machine, Schachtengineered bilateral barter trade deals with the nations of Eastern Europewhich tied their economies more closely to Germany and resulted in growingGerman political influence, especially in Hungary and Bulgaria, and to alesser extent in Yugoslavia and Rumania. . A trade war went on between them from 1926 to 1934. The British,anxious to pare further defense costs in bad times, pacifistic in theiroutlook, and believing that some of the terms of Versailles had been tooharsh or unjust to Germany, finally prevailed on the reluctant French inDecember 1932 to accept the principle of arms parity in Europe. German Penetration of Eastern Europe. The German people neededliving space or lebenstraum, land for its existence, which was to be foundin the east, primarily in Russia. German Phony Peace Offensive of 1933. According to Taylor,Hitler's "attitude toward Great Britain was a mixture of admiration andhate, never entirely entangled" (15). And on October 23, 1936, Germany signed the Anti-Comintern Pactwith Japan, reversing its prior pro-Chinese bent. Trans. The BritishConservative Party then in power under Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin andmany French rightwingers, fearful of the spread of Bolshevism, and everyEastern European government except Czechoslovakia, which signed a defensepact with the Soviets in the spring of 1935, were staunchly opposed tocooperation with Russia. Ribbentrop's mission failed in partbecause of his arrogant and clumsy demeanor, but, as the fall 1936 Olympicsapproached, Hitler projected once again a peaceful image, hoping to lullthe West into complacency until he was ready to make his next move. Hereacted strongly against the Nazi putsch against Dollfuss which resulted inthe latter's assassination on July 25, 1934 by sending four Italiandivisions to the Brenner Pass. The German economywas devastated by the Great Depression. GERMAN FOREIGN POLICY (1933-1936) This research paper traces the evolution of German foreign policyduring the first four years after Adolf Hitler became Chancellor of Germanyon January 3 , 1933. The somewhat artificial prosperity of the mid-192 s had beenpropped up by short term loans from the United States. Although Hitler planned in the early 194 s to conquer Europeand the Soviet Union, his aims, according to Weinberg, were "potentiallylimitless," because Hitler believed that "world peace would come only 'whenone power, the racially best one, has attained complete and uncontestedsupremacy'" (Kershaw 7). had utterly abandoned the Stresa Front, left its allies inthe lurch and assisted Hitler in tearing a further huge strip off theVersailles Treaty" (558). As Germany's none too secret rearmamentproceeded apace in 1934-1935, apprehensions over German capabilities andintentions grew leading to ineffective attempts by Britain, France, Italyand the Soviet Union to mount an effective response. As he had indicated to the German military on February 3,"Hitler did not really want to negotiate seriously at Geneva" (Fischer4 4). Deficitfinancing managed by Reichsbank President Hjalmar Schacht was used torestore full employment through public works and rearmament. Subsidies to the dissident SudetenGerman minority in Czechoslovakia led by Konrad Heinlein's Sudeten GermanFront, to the Germans in Danzig and in the Lithuanian city of Memel wereincreased. Hitler made a further attempt to exploit Franco-British divisions andto exploit appeasement sentiment in Britain by sending Ribbentrop toEngland as Ambassador in the summer of 1936 to attempt negotiate asettlement under which Germany would accept the British Empire in returnfor a free hand in Central and Eastern Europe. TheBritish accepted this deal even though Germany lacked the shipbuildingcapacity to exceed those limits for a decade and by doing so, it alienatedits French ally and Italy, both naval powers. The reaction in the West to Hitler's March 1935 announcements wasconsternation and weakly worded protests which were contained in a jointcommunique issued by Britain, France and Italy at Lake Maggiore (the Stresafront) on April 14, 1935. Germany succeeded in foilingFrench attempts in 1934-1935 to form an Eastern Locarno. The Concordat signed with the Vatican on July 2 , 1933, wasintended to eliminate the internal influence of Catholic politicians. Germanyeffectively had no navy or airforce, even though it had clandestinelymaintained some air and U-boat capability. . The fact that hesucceeded with such transparently unscrupulous tactics said much for thegullibility, weakness and divisions of and among most of the westernstatesmen he outwitted. France blocked a proposal by GermanChancellor Heinrich Bruning in March 1931 to form an Austro-German customsunion. Relations with the United States. . Post-1919 relations between Germany and Polandwere poor. The Gathering Storm. War was unavoidable. Hitler, however, kept these minorities on a short leash while heconcentrated on disrupting Western unity. Theshortening to one day of the planned boycott of Jewish businesses in April1933 reflected the advice of Foreign Minister Konstantin von Neurath andSchacht that the adverse reaction of public opinion in the West toantisemitic violence might "have disastrous effects on the German economyand its standing abroad" (Kershaw 413). While Italy stood on the sidelines,Austria was browbeat into taking Nazis into its government and followingthe German foreign policy line under the Austrian-German agreement of July11, 1936. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 197 .----------------------- 16 1935-1936 As Shirer described the situation at the end of 1934, "the prospectsfor dividing the Great Powers seemed dimmer than ever throughout thecrucial year of 1934. "Contrary to thewishes of the Foreign Office," Hitler ruled out any improvement inrelations with the Soviet Union (Kershaw 545). According toWeinberg, that meeting in Hitler's mind "gave him grounds to assume thatall would be well if the coup [planned against Dollfuss] succeeded" (1 4).In fact, Mussolini had formed a negative personal impression of Hitler. Austria. These successes were achieved at minimum short-term cost butmasked the more fundamental mismatch between Hitler's unsatiatedterritorial ambitions and Germany's limited resources. German Weakness in 1933. In 1933-1934, Hitler relied primarily on the professional Germandiplomatic service which Fischer said "had grown up in Imperial Germany andstill reflected monarchist beliefs of the old Kaiserreich" (398). Rhineland Crisis of March 1936. Hitler sent Ribbentropto London where he announced to the British on a take it or leave it basisthat Germany was willing to enter into an agreement under which Germanywould limit its construction of warships to a tonnage which was 35 percentof Britain's and eventually could match British submarine levels. Boston: Houghton, Mifflin, 1948.Fischer, Klaus P. Theonly beneficiary of this conflict was Germany. Mussolini strongly supported Austria's independence which heregarded as a buffer against a resurgence of German expansionist impulsesand German interference with Italian interests in the Balkans. The Origins of the Second World War. Itwas also an Allied defeat and a German victory in strategic terms becausethe Low Countries were then open to German invasion and the French MaginotLine was outflanked. Hitler's First Saturday Surprise. German foreign policyin 1935-1936 focused on destroying what was left of the Versailles-basedsystem of collective security by exploiting divisions among the westernpowers while at the same time preparing the ground for future expansion ofGerman influence in Central and Eastern Europe. Hitler wasforced to disavow any German involvement. Meanwhile, Italy became further alienated from the Westerncamp, primarily because of British opposition through the League of Nationsto its invasion and later conquest of Abyssinia (Ethiopia). Hitler, moreover, had prevailed over morecautious advice from his leading Foreign Ministry officials and militaryleaders. By November 1936, Mussolini referred to Germany as a fellow Axispartner. London: Routledge, 1997.Taylor, A. Contrast between the Nazi Worldwiew and German Weakness in 1933 Hitler's Worldview.
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