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SYSTEMS THEORY.
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Definition, theories of Donald Campbell, effectiveness in dealing with social problems, principles, Internet, models. Annotated Bibliography.... More...
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Paper Abstract:
Definition, theories of Donald Campbell, effectiveness in dealing with social problems, principles, Internet, models. Annotated Bibliography.
Paper Introduction:
A CONSIDERATION OF DONALD T. CAMPBELL
Introduction
When Donald T. Campbell died in 1996, he was widely eulogized in a number of diverse publications, and each of the acknowledgments emphasized the catholicity of his work. (His range of topics is seen in the annotated bibliography at the conclusion of this essay.)
Particularly germane to this class project is the fact that Campbell was one of the first scholars to recognize that program evaluation had to be considered as a systems process, and that the system must be first understood. All of Campbell=s body of work (including some 250 widely-quoted and emulated articles) suggest that man=s attempts at classification and codification represent one point on a continuum that shows man=s attempt to make sense of
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New York : Wiley. J. Campbell was one of thefirst to embrace this thinking. ACybernetics@ is derived from the Greek word for steersman, and has atits basis that the human is an essential part of a system, and, in general,assumes a more epistemological stance, and takes the position that theAwhole@ can be analyzed as a series of components or units. San Francisco: Jossey-BassPublishers. Malabar, FL: R.E. As early as 1959, Campbell was presenting his views of theinterconnections between all biological systems, interconnections that showthe necessary integrity between different elements, a concept that has beenembraced by many disciplines, including business, engineering, philosophy,education, physics, cybernetics, social science, and more. The logic of social systems: A unified, deductive,system-based approach to social science. Ayala and T. (1965), "Variation and Selective Retention in Socio-Cultural Evolution," in H. Those are: A. T. Thesereliant organisms then form groupings, which implies a hierarchical"systems of systems." view of the world. When we exchange ideas about something, we usually do so by usingconceptual models to enhance communications. Such amodel also can be mental image, a normative description. General system theory: Foundations,development, applications. Kuhn, A. Essay References Bertalanffy, L., (1972). New York: Free Press Hofstadter, D. Campbell proposes that systems, and therefore programs, reflect thenecessity of processes evaluation. The writing showsclarity and conciseness, both of which are reflected in all of his works.Campbell, D. A systems modelis useful as a referent that can be examined and studied in an attempt tocreate an understanding of the system the model represents. It is clear that herelishes the idea of attributing a philosophy to something like biology.This chapter has strong metaphysical suggestions of Athinking with theheart and feeling with the mind@.Campbell, D. Sherif and C. Using that model, the Internet could be explained as having acirculatory system (comprised of a Aheart@ (computer), a Anervous system@(modems, phone connections, satellite transfers and so on), a Adigestivesystem@ (ability to absorb and manipulate data) and so on. In the program field, there are certain basic requirements for modelcreation and analysis, which are summarized below. He reflects on the changes that have come about, andespecially the growth in training, teaching and evaluating teaching.Campbell, D. F. The rise of systems theory: An ideologicalanalysis. a representationof a future system that we create by design. Opensystems exchange information, energy, ideas, or materials with theenvironment in which they exist; this exchange is dynamic and keeps thesystem "alive." Closed systems do not exchange information, energy, ideas,or materials with the environment. Mischel (Ed.), Human Action: Conceptualand Empirical Issues, New York: Academic Press, 41- 69.Social disorientation is the key element of this chapter, with criticalreflections on the inability of many organizational leaders to cope withchange. (1989). Assuming the oppositeapproach is cybernetics, which can be defined as the science ofcommunication and control in animal and machine. Woolworth company was a classic Aopen@ system,reacting totally to the desires and inputs of the customers. R. This attempt is the underlying proposition of Asystems theory,@ aconcept defined in the American Heritage Dictionary (1988) as Aa regularlyinteracting or interdependent group of items forming a unified whole; anassemblage of substances that is in or tends to equilibrium; harmoniousarrangement or pattern; an organized set of doctrines, ideas or principlesusually intended to explain the arrangement or working of a systematicwhole." That capsulizes quite accurately Campbell=s thinking. In developing and/or analyzing a general systems model, it isessential to remember that there cannot be one true and completedescription of Athe way the world is" B which is to say that there can beno God's eye view of reality. Second, the models must have had a sample size large enough to developstable estimates with minimal fluctuation due to sampling errors. (1974), "Downward Causation in Hierarchically OrganizedBiological Systems," in F. Closed systems often "die" because theenergy flow, or the give-and-take which allows something to thrive, becomesstagnant. C. Mack(Eds.), Social Change in Developing Areas: A Reinterpretation ofEvolutionary Theory, Cambridge, MA: Schenkman, 19- 48.In this chapter, Campbell takes issue with the trend of ignoring thesystemology of all organizations. Unless a continuous source of energy is focused on an activity, energy within a system will dissipate and become random (entropic). J. This suggests a system whose behavior isentirely explainable from within, a system without input. T. Being aware of the fact that the majority of phenomena can only beunderstood using multi-disciplinary approaches and that each of thesedisciplines has proprietary theories, concepts and formulae, that theacceptance of his theories would be rejected by scientists struggling tocommunicate and blend their ideas.Campbell, D. Introduction to systems thinking and I think.Hanover, NH: High Performance Systems, Inc.ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHYCampbell, D. Stated another way, changes in one part of the system affect other parts or the whole (system trying to reach equilibrium). Campbell died in 1996, he was widely eulogized in anumber of diverse publications, and each of the acknowledgments emphasizedthe catholicity of his work. Laszlo, E. To fully understand the complexity, technical expertise inquantum physics, electro-magnetism, fuzzy math and logic, calculus,electrical engineering, and other technical fields are necessary. Sociology and modern systems theory.Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. First, the observations used in creating a model for validation andnorming were of adequate size and were sufficiently representative tosubstantiate validity statements, to establish appropriate norms, and tosupport conclusions regarding the use of the model for the intendedpurpose. (Bertalanffy, 1972). Who is the model designed for? 3. A few of those are: 1. New York: Vintage Books. Bridgeman (Ed.), The Nature of Prosocial Development:Interdisciplinary Theoriesand Strategies, New York: Academic Press, 11- 41.The terms "system", "systems approach", and "evaluation@ are all recognizedas legitimate scientific concepts. Natural systems include subatomic systems to livingsystems of all kinds, our planet, the solar systems, galactic systems andthe Universe. Instead, cybernetics focuses onorganization, pattern and communication (Richmond, 1992). (1974). System boundaries are artificial since all systems reside in an environment of other larger systems (Kuhn, 1974). Thisprocess involves starting from observation and arriving at the constructionof systems models, as shown in the Chinese taxonomy that began this paper,and in the categorizing works of Aristotle. Systems consist of interrelated components, which imply a relationship between parts and the whole, and this relationship is categorized into subsystems and suprasystems (Bertalanffy, 1972). Of interest to this discussion is the fact thatprogram evaluation within the systems analysis construct applies the sameprinciples to decision-making processes and management behavior. For years, the F.W. In these systems theories, the human being was apart of the system, and had little actual control. Sherif (Eds.),Interdisciplinary Relationships in the Social Sciences, Chicago, IL:Aldine, 328- 348.In this chapter, the roots of Campbell=s evolutionary ratiocination areseen as he develops interdisciplinary goals for training.Campbell, D. (1978). v-xxiii.Introducing this seminal work, Campbell lays the framework for culturalrelativism, elevating the idea of program evaluation to a rational and asymbolic art. Almost all cybernetic theories involve process and change, and it canbe argued that Ainformation and knowledge@ is the primary method ofbridging two states of uncertainty.Decision-making, in this schema, is the basis of cybernetic informationprocessing and computing. London: Allen Lane. T. E. Campbell repeatedly observes, in this respect, that our models are theproducts of our own representation of a selected specific system. F., (1967). By attempting to do so, one adopts apresupposition of an external perspective: a symbol system external toreality, related to reality by a reference relation that gives meaning tothe symbols. What are the intended uses of the model? Systems are normally arranged in a hierarchy with strong relationships between sub and supra systems (Etzioni, 1975). Take, for example, the complex actions and interreactions of theInternet. G. (1969), "Ethnocentrism of Disciplines and the Fish-ScaleModel of Omniscience," in M. The systems view of the world: A holistic visionfor our time. In explaininga complex concept, it is essential to have a common model, or a commonframe of reference, so that we have some assurance that everybody istalking about the same thing. The majority of his work, then, was to arrange empirical fields in ahierarchy of complexity of organization of their basic 'individual' or unitof behavior, and to try to develop a level of abstraction appropriate toeach. He freely attributes credit to VonBertanlaffy and others who have begun looking at human organizations withinthe systems approach.Campbell, D. T. Collins (Eds.), Scientific Inquiry andthe Social Sciences, San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, pp. Bertalanffy, L.,(1975). For example, he noted the fact that cells create organs which createorganisms which are either self-maintaining or reliant organisms. W. T. (1959), "Methodological Suggestions From a ComparativePsychology of Knowledge Processes," Inquiry, 2, 152- 182.This article lays the framework for his later investigations and determinessome of the essences of an epistemology of knowledge. New York: G. It is generally agreed by systems theorists that general systemstheory, as described and postulated by Campbell, provides a viable modelfor looking at ourselves, at our environments, at the systems that affectus, and the systems to which we belong (Bertalanffy, 1972, 1975; Buckley,1967; Etzioni, 1975; Hofstadter, 1989). (1996). Systems can be open or closed - influenced by environment or environments Bopen -- or not influenced by environment -- closed (Bertalanffy, 1972). Designed systems, on the other hand, are created by man andinclude several major types: (b) Fabricated physical systems (manmade artifacts): (c) Hybrid systems that combine manmade and natural elements (d) Conceptual systems such as literature, math, logic, philosophy and so on. All of Campbell=s body of work (including some 25 widely-quoted and emulated articles) suggest that man=s attempts at classificationand codification represent one point on a continuum that shows man=sattempt to make sense of his environment. A CONSIDERATION OF DONALD T. T. Lilienfeld, R. Next in thehierarchy is a deterministic system that is more flexible, but is stillcharacterized by clearly defined goals, and some degree of freedom inselecting means of operation. The elements of the system that he refers to calls for aroot understanding of the process of change, and the ability of humans toaccept change, which is learning.Campbell, D. The models chosen for the remainder of this discussion have all beentested by theorists and found to share certain elements in common. Interest moved soon to numeroussciences involving man, applying cybernetics to processes of cognition, tosuch practical pursuits such as psychiatry, family therapy, the developmentof information and decision systems, management, government, and to effortsto understand complex forms of social organization including communicationand computer networks. Buckley, W. B. W. (e) Human activity systems, such as cities, states, nations and societies.Management science is typically concerned with this last type, the humanactivity system, since these refer to activities carried out by people whoselect and organize these activities to attain a purpose. However, the system isseparated from its environment by Aboundaries.@ Open systems usually havepermeable boundaries that allow for exchanges and interactions, whereasclosed systems have rigid boundaries through which nothing can pass. Thesesystems are rather closed, have clearly defined boundaries, and arecharacterized by limited interactions with their environment. 454- 486.This is a philosophical rumination of the Aexamined@ life that Campbell hasspent in academia. The Internationallibrary of systems theory and philosophy. Godel, Escher, Bach: An eternal goldenbraid. (1981), "Comment: Another Perspective on a ScholarlyCareer," in M. Each and every system has inputs, processes, outputs, and feedback loops (Bertalanffy, 1975. R. (1988). CAMPBELL Introduction When Donald T. Often models that seemingly donot apply in one category may, in fact, prove useful in understanding asecond category. Braziller. (1972), "Herskovits, Cultural Relativism, and Metascience,"in M. It is also agreed that GeneralSystems Theory (GST) enables the observing of various types of systems andstudying their behavior, in an attempt to recognize characteristics commonto all systems (Kauffman, 1993; Kuhn, 1974). Bertalanffy (1972) described a Aclosed@ system as that which has nointeraction with an environment. Such activities and processesconstitute the first stage of developing a systems model. It is agreed that one definition of an open system is that isinteracts with, and is part of its environment. T. T. (1983), "The Two Distinct Routes Beyond Kin Selection toUltra-Sociality: Implications for the Humanities and Social Sciences," inD. D. Human activitysystems range from families and small groups through organizations,businesses, communities, nations, regional/international associations, andthe global system of society. The rise of systems theory: An ideologicalanalysis. Cresskill, NJ : Hampton Press. The first works in cybernetics were primarily technological, and pavedthe way for feedback control devices, communication technology, automationof production processes and computers. 4. (1981), "Levels of Organization, Selection, and InformationStorage in Biological and Social Evolution," The Behavioral and BrainSciences, 4, 236- 237. The first, and most important, is todevelop an acceptance of the concept of General Systems Theory. Are inappropriate applications identified? Most corporations are deterministic and arealso typified by levels of decision-making; thus they are more complex thanthe rigidly controlled systems. To be both valid anduseful, certain questions must be asked. E. Etzioni, A., (1975). What interpretations are appropriate? Perspectives on general system theory:Scientific-philosophical studies. No one canpinpoint the exact date that the Woolworth company became a closed system,but its gradual stagnation and decline is typical of a closed systempotentially becoming destructive. T. L. Parts of a system do not equal the whole, or the sum is greater than the total of its parts (Kuhn, 1974). The basis ofcybernetics is an Aorganization@ which establishes the methods in which thecomponents of such a system interact with one another, and how thisinteraction determines and changes the organization=s structure.Cybernetics differs from other systems theories in that there is little orno need to consider material implications. In the next section, we shall begin an analysis ofcertain GST models. These systems concepts include a systems environment, a definable boundarysystem, an input system, an output system, and processes that control anddirect the information. When Campbell uses the term "model," isused, it is used only as a descriptive/abstract representation used to meanmental images of general systems concepts and principles organized into ascheme. However, this complexity can be analogized by comparing it toCampbell=s subsystem analysis of the living being, which shares certainsystems B circulation, nervous, digestive, endocrine, and so on. Both open and closed systems exist in an open-closed continuum. From that basis, the "general" concepts and principles willtransform to represent a mental image, a description of a perceived real-world social system. Lilienfeld, R. Forces within a system tend to counteract each other, a process known as feedback which forces the system back into equilibrium after being disturbed by external forces (homeostasis). In discussing systems theory, there are certain accepted definitionallimitations that apply. Krieg Richmond, B. A raw example of this distinction can be seen in the businessworld. Common concepts and principles of organization underpin and unify arange of disciplines (physics, biology, technology, sociology, psychology). The discussion leads to a global reinterpretation of programevaluation.Campbell, D. In addition, there are rigidly controlled systems, such as man-machinesystems (in the military for example) or work on an assembly line. Fundamental to the evaluation of any model is the degree to which themodel construct is free from measurement error and is consistent from oneoccasion to another. In general, the field of systems theory describes two major types,natural and designed. (His range of topics is seen in the annotatedbibliography at the conclusion of this essay.) Particularly germane to this class project is the fact that Campbellwas one of the first scholars to recognize that program evaluation had tobe considered as a systems process, and that the system must be firstunderstood. Brewer and B. Barringer, G. A comparative analysis of complex organizations:On power, involvement, and their correlates. Here he argues that clear understanding could come from an atomisticor reductivist scientific approach, seeking out an understanding thesmallest element of a naturally occurring phenomena; specifically, a cell.While excellent philosophically, this approach has some pragmatic problems,most specifically the fact that it is quite easy to lose sight of thewhole. B. The act of studying and analyzing systems theories develops anawareness of the set of concepts that are common to all systems, and it isthen possible to observe certain relationships from which we can constructwhat are known as General Systems Principles (Campbell, 1963; 1981; Laszlo,1996; Lillienfeld, 1978, 1988). This transference of category traits is sometimes calledAanalogy@ and it is useful in enhancing communications. Dobzhansky (Eds.), Studies inthe Philosophy of Biology, London: Macmillan, 179- 186.This is a topic that Campbell has great fun with. The above discussion of systems theory focused on natural or impliedsystems that have a certain focused, and sometimes fatalistic set ofoperating mechanisms. Under thisexpanded systems theory, systems may be closed to matter or energy (definedas an autarky), to information, and/or to organization. (1969), "A Phenomenology of the Other One: Corrigible,Hypothetical and Critical," in T. (1992). Herskovits, Cultural Relativism, New York: Random House, pp. 2. H. I Blanksten, and R. By utilizing this awareness ofrelationships, it is then possible to look for relationships amongprinciple concepts, and thence to organize related principles intoconceptual schemes is the challenge that Campbell undertakes.
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