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SUCCESSFUL DISADVANTAGED STUDENTS.
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Proposed research to determine why some at-risk students (poor, parental divorce, etc.) achieve educational success, focusing on the "resilient" students' perceptions about themselves and their success.... More...
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Paper Abstract:
Proposed research to determine why some at-risk students (poor, parental divorce, etc.) achieve educational success, focusing on the "resilient" students' perceptions about themselves and their success.
Paper Introduction:
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Background of the Study
In the last two decades, there has been a good deal of research that has focused on "resilient students." This research has defined these students as those who academically succeed despite their experiencing various strong stressors (e.g., poverty, parental divorce, etc.) that place them at risk of school failure (Christiansen, Christiansen & Howard, 1997). In each of these studies, researchers have found some characteristics which they identify as contributive to the success of these disadvantaged students.
For example, Dutrow and Houston (1981) observed that resilient students are: self-accepting, responsible, tolerant,
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Because of the risks and the nature of thedisorders, Gregg (1996) states that children with ADHD and LD are atspecial risk for the development of antisocial behaviors includingoppositional defiant disorder, conduct disorder, and delinquency. Using dichotomousscores, a significant relationship was found between the first-year gradepoint averages and the students' preference for the sensing/intuitiondimension of the MBTI. Using continuous scores, significant but low correlations (. Resilient Characteristics - As used in this study, this term isconceptually defined in terms of referring to several personalitycharacteristics which serve a protective function in terms of helpingstudents at risk for academic failure overcome the stressors placing themat risk and go on to academic success (Winfield, 1998). Due to all of the just stated problems with the existing approach tohelping at-risk students, many educators have looked in new directions forways to reduce the risks faced by disadvantaged groups. 3. Data Analysis Using the methods specified by McMillan and Reed (1993), interviewtranscripts will be analyzed using thematic analysis procedures. Research in education (6th ed.) Englewood Cliffs,NJ: Prentice-Hall. Le Tendre, M.J. & Gallo, P.S. (1975). Renchler, R. Prediction of academic success with the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (Paper presented at the Annual Forum of theAssociation for Institutional Research (21st, Minneapolis, MN May 17-2 ).ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. Findings of the study were said to show that students believed theirschooling environment supported their cognitive abilities. With respect to the foregoing, the reviewed literature indicated thatwhen children are labeled "resilient" or "nonresilient," it is easy tooverlook the significance of this concept. Intervention in School and Clinic, 33(2), 86-89. Kiess H.O. 1)In other words, resilience leads to academic gain and accomplishment notbecause it is necessarily always present but rather because, at moments ofstress, moments when children's interest or motivation in school and/orschool success could be debilitated, these characteristics come to the foreand operate to overcome the challenges or stressors. Poverty and learning. In addition, all interviews will berecorded and transcribed for analysis. Although most such studies use a small sample size(which precludes generalization of the findings to the larger population),Patton (199 ) notes that the case study can be: ...particularly useful when one needs to understand some special people, particular problem, or unique situation in great depth, and where one can identify cases of rich information (p. This study samples academically successful, at-risk resilientstudents. In the second section of thereview, current research was said to show that resilient children haveseveral other characteristics and traits. Specifically, the model stated that these environmental factorsoperated jointly to form a psychological support system that reinforced thepersonal traits that lead to resilience. 4. (Paperpresented at the American Educational Research Association Convention,February 26-March 1, New Orleans). Students who defy the odds: Astudy of resilient at-risk students. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Introduction According to Ornstein and Hunkins (1997), the population of at-riskstudents in America: ...tends to encompass the following major groups: poverty children (21 percent of student enrollments K-12); minority students (some 3 percent), especially immigrant children who speak a language other than English (15 percent); and handicapped students (12 percent)...(p. Phi Delta Kappan, April, 576-581. In addition, the average educational level of the county is somewhatlower than the state of Georgia. Positive use of time and meaningful involvement in school or otheractivities were frequently mentioned by students as success factors. A school that decides to implement the four factors of the modelmust analyze its own performance and then identify the strategies that willbring about these objectives. (1996). 54). This strategy is ineffective because self-esteem and self-efficacy are learned through positive social interaction and successful accomplishment of tasks, rather than through decontextualized units in a workbook (Winfield, 1998, p 3). The interviewer is in a position to quickly spot and correct anymisinterpretations of questions. & Houston, C.A. ED 357 433). In an effort to determine howpersonality may contribute to this finding, Patrick investigatedcharacteristics related to kindergarten and first-grade children's socialcompetence and school adjustment. Hengstler, D.D. As she puts it: Protection does not reside in the psychological chemistry of the moment but in the ways in which people deal with life changes and in what they do about their stressful or disadvantageous circumstances. What these early studies established was that: (a)personality and psychoemotional characteristics appeared to besystematically associated with various measures of academic success; and(b) some of the particular characteristics that are most salient in thisregard are self-acceptance, responsibility, tolerance, independence, self-efficacy, and femininity; however, there extent to which the personalitycharacteristics effect achievement gains may be related to societal genderdifferences.Current Research The current research places a far more intense focus than the earlyresearch on determining the specific characteristics associated withstudent resiliency, the interaction of these characteristics withenvironmental factors, and the strategies and techniques schools and schooldistricts can use to reinforce the development of these traits. All interviewers will take written notes to which they will add moredetail following the interview. & Roberts, A.D. And the disadvantaged comprise a substantial subset of the studentpopulation. Developing resilient schools andresilient students. When rapport exists between the interviewer and the interviewee,certain types of confidential information can be obtained that might nothave been obtained otherwise. Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole. These strategiesinclude establishing a psychological support system at the school, a systemthat reinforces the personal traits that lead to resilience in studentsthrough the environmental factors of: having school staff, faculty andadministrators develop significant relationships with adults; having schoolstaff motivate children through encouragement and through holding highexpectations for their success; and when children do succeed in anyactivities, having school staff recognize and acknowledge theaccomplishment. The purpose of this chapter is to examine the literature on thecharacteristics of resilient students in order to determine those traits,attributes, abilities, and so forth that contribute to the development ofstability despite the disadvantages and stressors that are associated withstudents being labeled at-risk. & Bloomquist, D.W. Based on the findings, it was suggested that the utility of theMBTI in predicting academic success was limited (the MBTI accounted for twopercent of the variance in Grade Point Average). Although the case study does not represent a unified methodology, ithas some essential characteristics. Ornstein, A.c. Mostadmired some adults they knew, and these relationships helped them believein themselves. Moreover, around 25.7 percent of communitymembers live below the poverty line as opposed to the state which listsapproximately 15.6 percent of the population as below the poverty level. Protective factors were said to include:anticipation of school and career success; strong hope in the future;anticipation of being in a good job by age 3 ) and a belief in theimportance of going to college. 3. (1991). In addition, the interview requires students to answer questions abuttheir neighborhood and their home life. In another study, Worrell (1996) examined the impact of variablesrelated to competence and identity as protective factors in a group of at-risk dropouts and at-risk graduates of high school. As Renchler putsit: ...the lifetime personal income lost as a result of dropping out ranges from $2 , to $2 , per individual. Confirmed dropouts, graduates and not-at-risk students completed the questionnaires on their own time. (1973). (199 ). Patton (199 ) argues that a case studyis an exploration of a bounded system through in-depth data collection andanalysis using multiple methods. (1991). (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. Human development (6th ed) NY:McGraw-Hill. Thosestudents whose parents provide written permission will constitute thesample. (1993). 2. According to Best (1991), there are some important findingssuggesting that interviewers tend to make decisions about subjects veryearly in the interview and this can bias their perceptions of theinformation that follows. Non-resilient students came from the same backgrounds but did nothave the requisite GPA. (3rd ed.) Boston: Allyn & Bacon. All of these requirements are to be metin the proposed research. Winfield (1998) discussed the characteristics of resilient childrenand how to build protective processes within and around children so thatthey overcome risk at critical decision-making moments in their lives.Regarding the characteristics of resilient children, Winfield reports thatthese characteristics include a wide array of social skills, positive peerinteractions, a high degree of social responsiveness and sensitivity,intelligence (usually as measured by IQ), empathy, a sense of humor, andcritical problem-solving skills. The form, which is presented in Appendix A, provides adefinition of "resilient at-risk" students as whose who have backgroundcharacteristics common to the at-risk population but who have nonethelessdemonstrated a consistent pattern of success or improvement in school thatensures their promotion if sustained throughout the year. Best further notes that visual cues tend to be more importantto interviewers than verbal cues and that any ethnic or racial differencesbetween the interviewer and interviewee can often lead to subtle andunconscious bias in interpreting interview data. ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. Improving Chapter I programs: We can dobetter. Particular attention needs to be paid to the mechanisms operating at key turning points in people's lives when a risk trajectory may be redirected onto a more adaptive path." (Winfield, 1998, p. 1) Renchler (1993) goes on to note that programs and projects thatassist in remediating school failure are well worth the effort, yielding along-term savings of five dollars for every dollar spent. (1981). Recommendations included: (1)developing early intervention to foster resilient characteristics; (2) thedevelopment of a positive school climate; (3) hiring and rewardingeffective school personnel; (4) small class size;(5) parent involvement; (6) the development of self-esteem and supportbuilding programs; (7) the use of guidance and mental health counseling;(8) the development and implementation of social and life skills/vocationaleducation; (9) peer involvement and extracurricular activities; (1 ) easinggrade level transitions; and (11) allowing for the ages and grade levels ofparticipants, with appropriate activities and lessons. In structure, the interview is designed to askstudents about their goals, hobbies, how they spend their spare time, theirfavorite teachers, their academic performance, and various other school andlearning experiences. She stated that resilience should be thought of not so much asa combination of personality characteristics, but rather as protectivemechanisms that modify the individual's response to risk situations andoperate at turning points during his or her life. What makes a child "resilient"is the relative strength of certain traits and characteristics incombination with external, environmental process that exert a protectiveeffect (e.g., various supports provided by school staff, communities, andfamilies). In the proposed research,the basic data collection techniques will consist of indepth semi-structured interview techniques. Students will beidentified by asking principals and guidance counselors for nominations.The nomination form that will be provided to nominators is the form used byMcMillan and Reed (1997) in their study of resiliency which the proposedresearch replicates. Younger students thought that teachers and counselorsplayed a more important role in their successes, while older students hadmore neutral attitudes toward school. Finalreport. Applying this model of resilience to school success, it cannoted that the model postulates that resilience leads to success in schoolbecause, during moments when students are highly stressed, thesecharacteristics surface and assist them toward positive responses andreactions. Are there specific factors or variables that are common toresilient students? In general, Winfieldnotes, these are parents who are concerned with their children's education,who participate in that education, who direct their children's everydaytasks, and who are aware of their children's interests and goals. According to Best (1991), the reliability of asemi-structured interview can be affected by the degree to whichinterviewers are trained and knowledgeable about interview methods.Therefore, the decision was made to use professional interviewers in orderto minimize any response variance that might be due to lack of training orknowledge on the part of those asking students interview questions. Research Questions The study's basic research problem can be re-characterized as anattempt to answer the following research questions: 1. Conceptual Framework Although it is not within the scope of the proposed research to testany theoretical notions of resiliency and its contribution to academicsuccess, it can be noted here that the research is guided by a conceptualformulation of the resiliency construct. Typically, commercial packages are purchased and teachers teach a lesson on self-esteem. Dutrow and Houston's (1981) study was said to reveal the following: (1) Reading test scores were not significantly related to GPA; (2) GPA correlated significantly with Guidance and Placement scoresas well as the personality characteristics of self-acceptance,responsibility, tolerance, achievement via independence, high intellectualefficiency, and femininity; (3) Flexibility, self-control, Guidance and Placement Test scores,and work delay avoidance were found to contribute significantly to GPA; (4) Study skills inventory scores were not significantly related toGPA; and (5) Femininity and achievement via independence were significantlyrelated to a GPAs above 3. The basic formulation underlyingthis study is Winfield's (1998) notion that resilience is not so much acollective of personality traits as an integrated collective of protectivemechanisms that operate to effect positive responses to risk situations andlife crises. Thematic analysis: A pragmatic view of thematicanalysis. According to the authors: The support system enhances the development of personal traits such as self-efficacy, goal orientation, personal responsibility, optimism, internal expectations, and coping ability. In all of the studies just cited, disadvantaged students exhibitingthe foregoing "resilient" characteristics evidenced significantly greateracademic success than did disadvantaged students who did not have thesecharacteristics. (1994). Usingprotective factors to enhance resilience and school success for at-riskstudents. The authors define resilientstudents as students with various stressors which place them in danger ofschool failure and dropout but who, nonetheless, go on to develop stable,healthy personas and to recover from or adapt to life's stresses orproblems. (1995). (1996). Conclusions Based on the reviewed studies of the personal traits andcharacteristics of resilient students, several conclusions can beformulated. The interview allows the sincerity and insight of the intervieweeto be more easily evaluated. ERIC DocumentReproduction Service No. The parents of those students who best meet therequirements for resiliency will be contacted by the researcher and askedif they would permit their children to participate in the study. What is the organization of the school and the classrooms of thesestudents and h ow did this contribute to their success? Psychological research methods:A conceptual approach. The study uses a specific interview protocol to assess students'perceptions. Winfield (1998) points out that studieshave repeatedly shown that resilient children had at least one adult whohelped them though a critical period, assisting them to feel better abouttheir situation and themselves. & Pisapia, J. Resilient students' beliefs about theirschooling environment: A possible role in developing goals and motivation.(Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational ResearchAssociation (New Orleans, LA, April 4-8). (Richmond, VA:Metropolitan Educational Research Consortium). The effect of personality characteristics ofhigh, middle, and low ability students on college persistence. Further, the nominator is required tocheck at-risk characteristics of the student on a provided list, toindicate three characteristics that were most important in determining thisstudent as fitting the definition, and to indicate why the student isbelieved to be a good example of a resilient at-risk student. What is the perspective of these resilient students toward schoolactivities and teaching practices that are intended to assist the at-riskpopulation? & Hunkins, F. Further, the proposed investigation will provide educators withadditional information about resilient students. Until very recently, the educational focus with respect to at-riskstudents has been upon using educational interventions to increase theirchances of school success (Papalia & Olds, 1995). Of these, over 8 percent are either African-American or Hispanicchildren. McMillan, J. These resilient students had aninternal sense of control about their lives and took personalresponsibility for their actions. In total, subjects were 17 resilient and 19 non-resilient students identified from a population of 17 urban high schoolstudents. One of the earliest studies of resiliency wasconducted by Gable and Roberts (1973) who examined for a relationshipbetween cognitive and affective variables in a sample of at-risk studentsin the context of predicting student achievement performance in theclassroom. The first point made is that thereare several general risk factors associated with this population not onlyfailing in school but also developing antisocial behavior. Defying the odds: A study ofresilient at-risk students. Statement of the Problem How do academically successful at-risk students with resilientcharacteristics perceive their own success? An analysis of the relationshipsof academic success and selected achievement/attitude tests. ED 2 5 129. Personality characteristics, social competence,and early school adjustment: A contextual and developmental perspective.(Paper presented at the Biennial Meeting of the Society for Research inChild Development (61st, Indianapolis, IN, March 3 -April 2). Most were from dysfunctional homeenvironments, but did not find this a hindrance to school success. It is, she further notes, important to realize that even whenpractices, policies, and attitudes are changed, it will still be necessaryto realize that every young person is a delicate balance during thosecritical life events between the protective processes and risk factors thatoriginate both internally and externally. (1995). Factors identified by students were thenclassified into thematic categories. However, the interview process is inherently a subjective process andexisting research has shown that there is commonly very low interraterreliability associated with the interview even when all of the requirementsfor a sound interview are met (Kiess & Bloomquist, 1985). In the study, authors Westfall and Pisapia (1994) conducted in-depthinterviews with 62 resilient and academically successful at-risk studentsfrom six school divisions. 8. ED 369 817. For example,interviewers, even if trained, often process data differently and reachvarying conclusions about interviewees. ED 389 78 . Statistics: Meaning and methods (2nd ed.) NY:Harcout Brace. Richmond, VA: Metropolitan Educational ResearchConsortium. Research Approach The proposed research will use a qualitative collective case studymethodology. Best, J.W. The study's subjects fell into one of five groups: past dropouts;predicted dropouts; predicted graduates; past graduates; and students notat risk for dropping out. 2. Therefore, the use ofa semi-structured interview in the proposed research should assist indealing with this limitation. . The interview is often superior to other data-gathering devicesfor eliciting information. Sample subjects were 1,812 freshmen entering the University of NorthCarolina, Greensboro, during the 1977-79 school year. Answering this question will bethe focus of the proposed research. Westfall, A. Specifically, Gable and Roberts (1973) study examined for an answerto a two-part question. Regardingthe characteristics of resilient students and steps that schools might taketo reinforce these, a study of resilient at-risk students was commissionedby the Metropolitan Educational Research Consortium to identify factorsthat students believed contributed to their academic success. Specifically, it was observed that those with apreference for intuition tended to have the highest Grade Point Averages. What strategies do students believe helped them to succeed? According to Best(1991), these advantages include: 1. ERIC Document ReproductionService No. The proposed research will replicate McMillan and Reed'sresearch in an effort to determine whether the themes identified by theauthors are stable for other at-risk resilient student groups and will alsolook for any new themes not spotted by the authors. 4. Overview of the Proposal The first chapter of the study described the basic nature of theproposed research including discussions of the background information, anddelineations of the research problem, purpose, research questions,hypotheses, delimitations, limitations, and basic definitions. It was further noted that there were inconsistencies in the resultsfor male and black students and for students with certain majors. Moreover, in several of these studies, it was observedthat the resilient students levels of academic success were slightly aboveaverage (overall GPAs of 2.75 or greater). The perceived influence of school and teachers was inversely relatedto grade level. ED 383 455. Linton, M. Regarding the process of building resilience, Winfield (1998)cautions educators to maintain an awareness that: (1) the process is long-term and developmental; (2) the process views children with strengthsrather than with deficits/risks; and (3) the process nurtures protectiveprocesses so that children can succeed, by changing systems, structures,and beliefs within schools and communities. Related to the foregoing, is said to be the fact that anotherimportant characteristic of resilient children is having at least onesignificant adult in their lives. In general, Patton states, the methodsused by case study researchers span the gambit from the quantitative dataand techniques to their qualitative counterparts. 376).In addition, Papalia and Olds (1995) report that the at-risk group has beenexpanded by many educators so as to include children who are abused orneglected, or homeless, or who were born with crack cocaine or other drugsin their systems. Research brief #18. (Paperpresented at the Annual Meeting of the Southeastern Association forCommunity College Research (Orlando, FL, July 2 -22, 1981). (Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the AmericanPsychological Association (1 4th, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, August 9-13).ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. Of the 115 identified students, 62 were interviewed in individualsessions by eight interviewers using a standard interview protocol.Findings from these interviews were said to indicate that these studentswere busy with activities and other positive uses of time. ED 2 7 636. It is expected that each interview,which will be conducted at school during the school day, will last from oneto one and a half hours. Predicted graduates and dropouts completed thequestionnaires at the school site. & Westfall, A. Further analysis of data collected in the Metropolitan EducationalResearch Consortium study was conducted by Pisapia and Westfall (1994).Based on these data the authors developed a resiliency model to explain whysome at-risk students actually do well in school. The MBTI is an personality index thatclassifies people on each of four indices of personality. The importance of the child's attachment to at least one prosocialsupporting adult is stressed for the promotion of prosocial behavior.Recommendations for policy and practice address risk reduction; cultivationof resiliency; encouragement of bonding; increased self-esteem; andcreation of a consistent system of expectations, reinforcement, andrecognition.Section Summary In the first section of this review, it was noted that foundationalresearch not only established that certain personal traits andcharacteristics foster resilience in at-risk students but that some ofthese characteristics are: self-acceptance, responsibility, tolerance,independence, self-efficacy, and femininity. Rather than completely focusing on educational interventions tobolster lagging skills and/or knowledge in at-risk groups, educators arenow investigating resilient children and attempting to find ways schoolscan encourage the development of these characteristics in students. This area consists of research which has conducted qualitativein-depth examinations of the personal perceptions of at-risk resilientstudents regarding their academic success. Curriculum: Foundations,principles and theory. Definitions So that the undertaken study may be fully understood, the followingkey terms are here defined: Academic Success - As used in this study, academic success isreferred to as having an overall grade point average of "C" (2. Specifically, the research will conductin-depth interviews with academically successful, resilient at-riskstudents attending middle school in Dougherty County, Georgia. (1995). Winfield (1998) further reports that resilient children tend to haveparents who themselves have certain stable characteristics---at least interms of their interactions with their children. There will be approximately five educators plusthe research who will form this panel. Moreover, despite its limitation, the interview has severaladvantages over quantitative methods, advantages which justify its use inthe proposed research despite its inherent limitations. (1994). Because of the complex nature of resilience, it is quite possiblethat a student may be resilient at certain critical moments and not atothers, due to the circumstances surrounding an event or moment. The results of the study and consideration of previous findings, leadWestfall and Pisapia (1994) to formulate several recommendations foractions schools/school districts can take to influence the development ofstrong, resilient personalities and beliefs. Dutrow, A. Winfield asserts that only when resilience is viewed as adevelopmental process that can be fostered, then strategies for change canbe directed toward practices, policies, and attitudes among professionaleducators. For example, Le Tendre(1991) reported that of 1,2 such programs and projects developed andimplemented during the 197 s and 198 s to help at-risk students, only tenwere found to be effective on the basis of statistical re-analysis. Specifically, the study looked for: (1)associations between personality characteristics and social competence; (2)the contribution of social and academic competence to school achievement;(3) similarities between competence in school and non-school contexts; and(4) differences in the previous relationships between kindergarten andfirst grade. Further, resilientstudents were found to have long-term goals, to keep themselves busy withpositive activities, and to have at least one significant adult in theirlives who they feel has really helped them (Patrick, 1995; McMillian &Reed, 1993). Thematicanalysis techniques will then be used to identify themes and patterns ofperceptions as they are related to students' attributions of their success.These themes and patterns will be then be discussed as they relate toresilient characteristics. In addition to the foregoing, Ornstein and Hunkins (1997) point outthat educational efforts to compensate for the disadvantages of at-riskgroups have been criticized on several grounds. ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED 74 43 . Characteristics of Resilient StudentsEarly, Historical, or Classic Research Most of the early research in the area was, essentially,foundational, which is to say that its primary contribution consisted ofstudies which established that there are personality traits andcharacteristics that increase at-risk students' chances of success in theireducational efforts. Educational psychology (7th ed.) NY: Harperand Row. Patrick, H. However, what needs to be noted about the bulk of the existingresearch on resiliency is that it consists primarily of quantitativestudies examining for the effectiveness of programs aimed at increasing theresiliency and therefore the academic performance of at-risk students.While this is important, it is the premise of this research that aqualitative examination of the actual perceptions of resilient at-riskstudents who have already achieved academically will lend greater insightinto resiliency in that it will provide data that heretofore has not beenmuch examined, namely the perceptions of the students themselves regardingthe factors contributive to their success. Worrell, F.C. Faunce, P.S. These consist of those used by McMillanand Reed (1993) who constructed, pilot tested and refined the interviewused in their research. The entire panel will develop themesand meet to synthesize the findings from the analysis of transcripts. Finally, in another early study, Dutrow and Houston (1981) conducteda study at Dabney S. These are:extraversion/introversion, sensing/intuition, thinking/feeling, andjudgment/perception. (1973). Worrell (1996) reported that findings indicated that students at thecontinuation high school were clearly at risk based on the risk factors ascompared to the comparison group. Also, they had good problem-solving skills, were non-defensive, non-aggressive, emotionally stable, hadgood feelings of personal power, were cooperative and empathic. Data Collection Methods The semi-structured interview and protocols that will be used in thisstudy are presented in Appendix B. ED 411 342. These factors tend to beinadequate development of social adjustment, emotional impairment,differential treatment by the school system and others in authority overthe child, and low self-esteem. They tended tohave clear and specific long-term goals that they were confident ofachieving, and they were optimistic about their futures. 8) werefound between the sensing/intuition dimension and students Grade PointAverage as well as the judging/perceptive dimension and the Grade PointAverage. Researchersinterested in this area of study should, therefore, consider long-term,longitudinal studies of any implemented programs or projects. The county's per capita income is $2 ,6 while that of the state ofGeorgia is slightly higher at $23,882 dollars. The Setting The school from which students will be drawn is in Dougherty CountyGeorgia. ) orbetter. Limitations The primary limitation of the proposed research is associated withits qualitative nature which relies on interview data. Still, semi-structured interviews such as that which will beused in the proposed study, tend to have much higher reliabiilties andvalidities than unstructured interviews (Best, 1991). Because ofreliability and validity concerns, it is important that the interviewinvolve careful planning with clear statements of objectives, plannedapproaches to obtain and evaluate the necessary information, and the use oftrained interviewers (Best, 1991). (199 ). (1994). Section Summary. Theauthors stated that the purposes of the study were to: (1) study the effectof personality characteristics, identified at the beginning of the freshmanyear, on the college persistence of high, middle, and low ability men andwomen students; and (2) to describe women and men of varying ability interms of certain academic variables. The findings of the study lent further clarification to theprediction of classroom achievement. Moreover, any sort of negative information aboutthe interviewee tends to be weighted more heavily than positiveinformation. As expected, cognitive variablescontributed to explaining variation in classroom grades. Significance of the Study The primary reason why it is important to examine resilience indisadvantaged students groups is the fact that this characteristic has beenfound to protect disadvantaged students against school failure (Winfield,1998). Only one previous study has beenconducted in this area which consisted of research performed by McMillanand Reed (1993). (Richmond, VA: MetropolitanEducational Research Consortium). The extent to which findings maygeneralize to groups of non-middle school students or in groups of middleschool students drawn from other schools cannot be known on the basis ofthis study's findings. The comparative effectiveness of the MBTI and thetraditional predictors of success using Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT)Scores and high school rank was also assessed in Hengstler's study. Accordingto Aronson (1994), thematic analysis uses data obtained through theinterview process to search for identifiable themes and patterns ofbehavior. A number of other studies have observed these same characteristics inresilient students (e.g., McMillian & Reed, 1993; Patrick, 1995; Worrell,1996). Moreover, it is the effect of this combination of personaltraits and protective external factors compared to the influence of risks,stressors, and vulnerabilities the child is facing that, overall, interactto produce or not produce resilience. Affective and cognitivecorrelates of classroom achievement: Research for the counselor. The researcher will hire two professional interviewers to collectdata, instructing them to ask questions in the same sequence as specifiedin the interview protocol. & Olds, S.W. 5. This support system is composedof: (1) significant relationships with adults; (2) positive use of time;(3) motivation through encouragement and high expectations; and (4)acknowledgment through recognition and accomplishment. Being a developmental process, resilience can be viewed asoccurring over a long period of time via interactions with significantindividuals, schools and/or organizations at critical points in children'slives which counteract the risks and vulnerabilities that would place thesechildren at a disadvantage. One of thesedirections, according to Christiansen, Christiansen and Howard (1997), hasbeen to conduct research into the personality characteristics of what arecommonly referred to as "resilient" students. Winfield, L.F. The interviewer is in a position to more clearly explain tosubjects the precise nature of the information desired in a giveninvestigation. Subject Selection Methods Study participants will constitute a purposeful nonprobability sampleof students selected from the population of at-risk disadvantaged studentsattending a public school in Dougherty County, Georgia. (1985). Research brief #19. 6. Gable, R.K. Theresearch also aims at delineating the implications of findings foreducators working with at-risk students. It was alsonoted that social competence differed between school and non-schoolcontexts. Protective processes have to bereinforced constantly so that the potential for young people to beresilient when faced with risk factors and vulnerabilities remains intact. This method is a relatively popular tool used to analyze thecharacteristics of one or more individual cases in a detailed and in-depthmanner (Patton, 199 ). 7. This information can beused by them in both working with resilient students and in designingprograms to help students become more resilient. ED 399 713. This research samples only middle school students who were alldrawn from one middle school only. Lapin, L. Klausmeier, H.J. It was pointed out that there are no quickand easy answers to solving the problems of at-risk students, but puttingthe factors of the resiliency model into place will operate to provide aprocess schools can use to develop a climate that encourages thedevelopment of resilient traits. 2. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications. The practical statistician:Simplified handbook of statistics. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. In otherwords, resilience should be viewed as a dynamic rather than a staticconcept; and the implication here is that educators, families, andcommunity members can and must build young people's potential to beresilient and strengthen protective processes in the face of external riskfactors such as gang warfare; low teacher expectations; physical, verbal,or sexual abuse; alcohol or other drug abuse; pregnancy; and so forth. All students interviewed had been nominatedby principals and guidance counselors. Based on these results, the authors concluded thatmoderate relationships between cognitive measures and classroom achievementshould be accepted and that future research should include personalitycharacteristics in studies of differences in the classroom achievementlevels of students in general and disadvantaged students in particular. Patrick (1995) reports that current research indicatesthat children's adjustment and achievement in first grade is crucial tosubsequent long-term school success. Q. In this regard,it is noted that there are risk factors related to personality,temperament, and cognitive ability and family/community/societal riskfactors that are common to both regular and ADD/learning disabled children,and these need to be considered. It wasconcluded that there are various significant personality characteristicsthat contribute to academic success and persistence but that thesecharacteristics interact with the differential reward systems andexpectations of institution and society for men and women. ERIC Document ReproductionService No. (Charleston, West Virginia: AppalachiaEducational Lab). The point that Winfield (1998) is making here is that resiliencebuilding is something that students need at critical moments in theirlives. Other probable outcomesfacing this population include low salaried jobs, substance abuse, andparticipation in crime. & Howard, M. Almost all of these students had comefrom dysfunctional homes, but most could name one or more persons who hadbeen significant in helping them. Gregg, S. Policy briefs. In the proposed research, the search for themes and patterns willbe conducted by a panel of experts on resilience that will be broughttogether by the researcher. CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Background of the Study In the last two decades, there has been a good deal of research thathas focused on "resilient students." This research has defined thesestudents as those who academically succeed despite their experiencingvarious strong stressors (e.g., poverty, parental divorce, etc.) that placethem at risk of school failure (Christiansen, Christiansen & Howard, 1997).In each of these studies, researchers have found some characteristics whichthey identify as contributive to the success of these disadvantagedstudents. The reviewed studies are divided into twocategories: (1) early, historical, and classic research in the area; and(2) current research in the area. CHAPTER III METHODS Restatement of the Problem The purpose of the proposed study is to conduct qualitative in-depthinterviews of a sample of students identified by school counselors andadministrators as resilient at-risk pupils in order to determine thosefactors students view as responsible for their academic success. Gordon (1994) conducted an exploratory analysis of goals, self-concept, and abilities of academically resilient and non-resilientstudents, and compared them with the beliefs these students have abouttheir schooling environment. 7. (1993). Based on the reviewed studies, the thirdand final section of the review presents a series of conclusions aboutresiliency and what schools and school districts can do to foster resilientcharacteristics in students. Additional characteristics of resilient children are said to include:positive peer and adult interactions; low degree of defensiveness andaggressiveness combined with a high degree of cooperation, participation,and emotional stability; a positive sense of self; a sense of personalpower rather than powerlessness; and an internal locus of control (a beliefthat they are capable of exercising a degree of control over theirenvironment). Resilient students were defined as coming froman impoverished and stressful environment, yet achieving a 2.75 or greatergrade point average (GPA). The reviewed literature also recommended that intervention effortsaimed at fostering resilience be developed at the earliest grade levelspossible; and that the these interventions be backed up and supported bybuilding a positive school climate, rewarding teachers who are shown to beeffective in achieving resiliency goals, restricting class size; involvingparents in resilience programs; developing self-esteem curriculum; usingguidance and mental health counseling; developing and implementing socialand life skills/vocational education; making grade transitions easier forstudents and making sure that curricula and instructional activities areage and grade appropriate. & Reed, D. Finally, the interview asks studentsa number of questions regarding any support or help they have received fromothers. Subjects were both graduate and nongraduate students attending theUniversity of Minnesota. Further, these studies have also found that resilient students had anumber of additional qualities including: expectation of school and careersuccess, expectation of having a good job of age 3 years, a belief in theimportance of going to college, and strong hope in the future (McMillian &Reed, 1993, Westfall & Pisapia, 1984; Worrell, 1996). What this means with respect to research isthat studies examining short-term gains with respect to resilience aregoing to provide, at best, an incomplete picture of the effectiveness ofstrategies undertaken to foster resilience in schools. Preventing antisocial behavior in disabled and at-risk students. Patton, M. Based on the reviewedresearch, it can be concluded that several strategies and techniques areavailable to educators for use in reinforcing resilience. The cumulative personal income lost nationally as a result of student dropouts is staggering...more than $238 billion with lost tax revenues of $68 billion...(p. Is resilience something we do or something we foster? Analyses of collected data revealed several gender-related interactions with respect to personality characteristics. A second conclusion of the study is that, over the years, researchhas led to the compilation of a fairly comprehensive personality profile ofthe resilient student, establishing at least 25 characteristics that arefairly consistently present in these students character. This chapter restates the basic researchproblem, specifies the sample and subject selection methods; it alsodelineates and discusses the research approach and all statisticalprocedures selected for data analysis. Pisapia, J. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. The third and final chapter of the proposal describes, delineates anddiscusses all of the methods and procedures that will be used to bothcollect and analyze data. Agenetic (traditionally male sex-typed) and, to a lesser degree,nurturing (traditionally female sex-typed) characteristics also predictedsocial competence in both family and school contexts, while nervousness andcreativity were negative predictors. The risk-resiliency paradigm in research ondropping out. Papalia, D.E. What was the locus of control for these students in terms of whatthey did for themselves and in terms of their perceptions about what othersdid for them? This study'sexamination of the perceptions of academically successful, resilient at-risk students, by providing data in an under-researched area of theknowledge base, will contribute to this effort to construct and developprograms that will build resilient characteristics in all students, helpingthem to "beat the odds" by overcoming the significant hurdles andchallenges at-risk students often are confronted with at school.Delimitations The boundaries beyond which this study does not seek to generalizecan be stated as follows: 1. Faunce (1973) examined the effects of personality characteristics onhigh, middle, and low ability students' persistence in college. The same information can be sought in diverse ways and at variousstages of the interview providing a check of the truthfulness of responses. Methods involved the administration of theIowa Silent Reading Test, the Survey of Study Habits and Attitudes, and theCalifornia Personality Inventory to 172 students enrolled in all of theEnglish classes offered at DSLCC during spring of 198 . 6. Sample subjects were 99at-risk students (35 females and 64 males) drawn from a continuation highschool in an urban school district and 24 high school students (9 femaleand 15 males) from a university summer program for academically-talentedyouth. Further, the drop out rate per 1 studentsenrolled is 11.3 for Dougherty County but only 7.3 for the state. (1994). A third conclusion of the study concerns what educators can do todevelop and strengthen resilience in students. A final conclusion of the study concerns continuing research onresilience. These criticisms include:(1) a hasty planning, piecemeal approach; (2) mismanagement andmisappropriation of funds; (3) a dependence on unethical grantspeople; (4)large consultant fees being charged for unaccomplished or shoddy work; (5)the use of inadequately trained personnel at both the state and locallevels; (6) overly high administrative salaries;(7) disregard for and lack of teacher participation; (8) vague objectives;(9) the use of poor evaluation procedures; and (1 ) the increased quantityof services being substituted for change in the quality of content ofexisting programs. Gordon, K.A. ED411 343. The secondchapter goes on to provide a comprehensive review of research and theory onresilience. A relatively large percent (19%) of the county receives food stamps,a rate that is precisely double that of the percentage observed for thestate. Why have these students succeeded when others with similarcharacteristics have not? Winfield (1998) found that resilient students were highlysocially competent with both peers and adults. However, theirschooling environment was not viewed as supportive of a number of otherabilities including social abilities, happiness, self-determination,individuality, and resource provision (helping others). However, longitudinalresearch conducted on such interventions has, over the years, shown verypoor success rates for many of these programs. Qualitative, in-depth interviews of resilient at-risk students wereused to identify factors that these students believe contributed to theirsuccess in school in a study conducted by McMillian and Reed (1993) ofresilient students in six urban, suburban, and rural school divisions inthe Richmond (Virginia) area. Inaddition, the majority articulated clear and specific long-term goals.Students' personal responses indicated that they had an internal locus ofcontrol and accepted personal responsibility for their successes andfailures. Qualitative evaluations and research methods(2nd ed.). Lancaster Community College in order to examine therelationships between reading achievement, academic major, grade pointaverage, scores on the college Guidance and Placement Test, and selectedpersonality characteristics. For example, Dutrow and Houston (1981) observed that resilientstudents are: self-accepting, responsible, tolerant, flexible and self-controlled. The majority of people in the county arebetween 18 and 64 years of age with a median age of 29.9; this is slightlyyounger than the median age for Georgia which is 31.5. The unemployment rate isdouble that of the state of Georgia, approximately 8.8 percent as comparedwith Georgia's 4.2 percent. The interview can often operate to stimulate subjects to greaterinsight into his or her own experiences and thereby allow for explorationinto significant areas not anticipated in the original plan of theinvestigation. Available at: www.ncrel.org. This section of the review examined some of thefoundational work leading to more current research on the resiliency of at-risk student groups. It is a process that schools should foster throughout students'development by strengthening protective processes throughout their schoolcareer, starting at the earliest grades and continuing on through the latergrades. Christiansen, J., Christiansen, J.L. The nominator uses the form to identify the student by name and alsoto supply age, race and gender data. The extent to which the findings may generalize to other similargroups of students cannot be known on the basis of the findings of thisstudy. For example, they are asked ifthere is any way in which they feel that their home or their neighborhoodhas helped them to succeed in school. If you view resilience as something we do, then many of the strategies adopted will be short-term and misdirected toward changing the child. One excellent point regarding the development of practices andpolicies that reinforce resilience has been made by Winfield (1998) whonotes that it is very important to develop clear and concrete definitionsof precisely what is meant by the term "resilience." Winfield notes that: Some of the terms often considered to be synonymous with resilience are positive coping, persistence, adaptation, and long-term success despite adverse circumstances. (1981). What do these students see as most important in their success andwhy? ERIC Digest, 83, 1-2.(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. The county, for example, shows a 32.5percent rate of people not completing high school while the state showsonly a 29.1 percent level. The first conclusion that can be formulated is thateducational efforts to help at-risk students tend to be going in a newdirection. Purpose of the Study The primary purpose of the proposed examination of resilient at-riskstudents is to add to an under-researched area of the resiliencyliterature. ED 4 7 624.----------------------- 43 What critical incidents or events were influential in helpingthese students? Ornstein and Hunkins (1997) further point out that at-risk studentsare "at risk" for far more than school failure. 5. The Qualitative Report, 2(1). (It should be noted here that in manycases, the significant adult cited by resilient children as a teacher!) Winfield (1998) also offered a fresh way of looking at the concept ofresilience. These are children suffering from a variety of physical,psychoemotional and psychosocial stressors, including poverty, living indeteriorated housing, exposure to substance abusers, poor nutrition, and soforth. The extent to which findings would be the same if a differentinterview method were used with different questions cannot be known on thebasis of this study's findings. 9. (p.1) Pisapia and Westfall (1994) also stated that there were concretesteps schools/school districts could take to operationalize the resiliencymodel, the first of which was to be aware of the model and disseminate itsconcepts. This model suggested thatthere were four environmental factors that encouraged the development ofthose personality characteristics that enabled at-risk students to do wellin school. (1998) Developing resilience in urban youth: An NCRELMonograph. Documentavailable:www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/BackIssues/QR2-1/aronson.html. This chapter ends with a summary of the basic informationgleaned from the review as well as with the formulation of a series ofconclusions about both the existing knowledge in the area and the status ofthe knowledge base itself. However,the fact that the introversion/extraversion dimension accounted for anadditional seven percent of the variance in the GPA for 1979 blackstudents, after the SAT and high school rank scores were included, was saidto suggest that the MBTI has the potential for being an important predictorof academic success for select groups, possibly at-risk, minority groups. This approach is similar to what some teachers attempt to do in order to build students' self-esteem. It isheavily African-American with 54 percent of the population being African-American as opposed to Georgia's overall percentage of African-Americancitizens which is 28.4 percent. The county has a total population of around 96, people. However, having an intact family is notnecessarily associated with resilience; rather, it is only the presence ofone or more caring adults who assist the child through the difficulties andchallenges he or she is facing. 3. Indeed, according to Renchler (1993), approximately 4 percent ofAmerican children are at risk for school failure due to their disadvantagedstatus. Severalfactors are said to offer protection for these LD and ADHD children.Specifically, Gregg (1996) reports that with respect to resiliency inovercoming risk, general protective factors include good schools thatreinforce resilient traits and the use of multidisciplinary intervention. (1997). However, it canalso be concluded that the best way to construe the concept of "resilience"is not really in terms of personality characteristics so much as in termsof resilience being a protective process. In another early study, Hengstler (1981) attempted to determinewhether levels of academic success in school could be predicted by theMyers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI). Moreover, Renchler (1993) points out that the costs of school failurefor these children and society in general are enormous. Gregg (1996) has discussed resiliency as it applies to learningdisabled and/or hyperactive children. This question was: 1) to what extent, and 2) inwhat manner could classroom achievement (grades) be predicted by selectedcognitive and affective variables of students. Specifically, the current research indicated that resilient childrentend to: (1) perceive themselves as using their time in appropriate andmeaningful ways; (2) are involved in school and school-related activities; (3)accept personality responsibility for their successes and their failures(internal locus of control); (4) have at least one very significant and meaningful adult in theirlives who helps them; (5) anticipate school and career success; (6) have hope for the future; (7) anticipate being in a good job by age 3 ; (8) believe in the importance of going to college; (9) have clear, long-term goals which they are confident ofachieving; (1 ) have had a set of experiences that operated as "reality checks"showing them what was important and meaningful; (11) admired certain adults who they felt helped them to believe inthemselves; (12) be socially competent; (13) belief that their schools support their cognitive skills; (14) have positive peer interactions; (15) be socially responsiveness and sensitive; (16) be intelligent; (17) be empathetic; (18) have a sense of humor; (19) have good problem-solving skills; (2 ) not be defensive but rather cooperative; (21) have emotional stability; (22) have a strong sense of personal power; and (23) have parents who are involved in them, their activities andtheir schooling. However, it is also pointed out that there are some risk factors thatare specific to children with ADHD and LD. Ed 83 5 3). ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. In general, findings showed that the combination of cognitive andaffective variables in a six predictor equation explained 32 percent of thevariation in grades. (1997). What strategies are needed for particular at-risk characteristicsor categories? The single group of collective cases thatis the object of the research focus will consist of at-risk students whohave been academically successful and identified by school administratorsand counselors as resilient. Many of the older students were said to have experienced severe"reality checks" that turned them around. References Aronson, J. ERIC DocumentReproduction Service No. Findings were said to reveal that social competence at school was animportant contributor to school adjustment independent of academiccompetence and intelligence, particularly in kindergarten. Once the names of all nominees have been provided, they will bereviewed by the researcher. Because of these an other limitations, Kiess and Bloomquist (1985)report that over the years, most studies have shown fairly low validity forthe interview.
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