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CELL PHONES & DRIVING.
Term Paper ID:26635
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Examines dangers of cell phone use while driving. History of cell phone use, statistics, rumors, other driving distractions, effects on driver attention, safety recommendations.... More...
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Paper Abstract:
Examines dangers of cell phone use while driving. History of cell phone use, statistics, rumors, other driving distractions, effects on driver attention, safety recommendations.
Paper Introduction:
LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction
This literature review concerning cellular phone use during motor vehicle operation and its affect on traffic accidents, will address the following areas relevant to this study: history of cellular phone use; relevant statistics; rumors regarding cellular phone hazards; other internal motor vehicle distractions; effects on attention; safety issue recommendations; and conclusion.
History of Cellular Phone Use
A review of the history of cellular phone use will demonstrate that while early focus on cell phones regarded growth in wireless communication, more recent focus includes a concern
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NHTSA also reports that improved cellular telephone research is neededto further understand the driver's needs and abilities related to cellphone use while driving. State and federal agencies need to investigateproblems related to numerous redundant emergency calls received. Driveretiquette might be taught to help the driver become aware of and abruptlyhalt conversations that might become particularly hazardous (14-15). The literature demonstrates insufficient data regarding cell phone usewhile driving and its relationship to accidents. Retrieved July 29, 1999 from World Wide Web: http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/people/injury/research/wireless/Ralston, Julie. The CWTA points out that overall numbers oftraffic accidents have not increased, with the increased use of cellphones, and numbers related to accidents prevented by cell phone use arenot available (1-2). Thistype of survey reflects public opinion which fuels rumors, but does notprovide accident statistics. Studies correlating cell phone use and accidents donot factor in other variables such as weather, drowsiness, speeding,alcohol, and road conditions. Although studies do showincreases in cell phone use, they do not show the same increases in numbersof traffic accidents. Most cell phone users were in the striking vehicle and theystruck that which was in clear view (9-1 ). In response to the concern for cell phone hazards, Redelmeir andTibshirani conducted an epidemiological study in 1997 to investigate theproblem. Being startled when the cell phone rang orwhile reaching for the phone is reported as a factor leading to running offthe road. The study also reports, however,that data does suggest, though not accurately predict, that increased useof in-vehicle wireless communications will be correlated with increasedautomobile crashes, unless changes are made (4). 1998.Bresnahan, Jennifer. Bresnahan cites the NHTSA report and states that cell phone use willdouble by 2 ; and only two states routinely collect data on trafficaccidents related to this phenomenon. 1998.Canadian Canadian Wireless Telecommunications Association (CWTA). "Car Phones a Dangerous Distraction: Dialing and Driving." Corpus Christi Caller Times 4 May 1998.Boney, Karissa. They want a wirelessphone to be able to call for emergency medical, law enforcement, or otherhelp agencies (1-2). Sundeen reports on data related to cellular telephones in motorvehicles. A survey of Minnesota motorists showed that more than half had viewedunsafe driving by cellular telephone users. are owned by peopleless than 24 years of age. Safety Issue Recommendations Literature provides recommendations for safer cell phone use duringmotor vehicle operation, regardless of evidence related to their accidentpotential. In addition it is reported that Ohio does not keepstatistics on traffic accidents and cellular phone use, but a sergeant"thinks" that the number is small. Most states do not monitor this situation in an organizedfashion and do not provide adequate statistical information.Negative Affects of Cellular Phone Use Statistics are reported from the Minnesota Motor Vehicle Crash Factsof 1994. Most reports are basedon police crash reports, which may under-report. "Association Between Cellular-Telephone Calls and Motor Vehicle Collisions." New England Journal of Medicine, 336 (1997): 453-458.Sundeen, Matt. The only new statistic reported is that in 1996, cell phone driversplaced 2.8 million emergency assistance calls (1-2).Positive Affects of Cellular Phone Use The Canadian Wireless Telecommunications Association (CWTA) reportsfacts regarding cell phones and driving. "A 'Gadget' Comes Into its Own The Meteoric Rise of Cellular Phones. Conclusion The preceding review of the literature provides an overview ofcellular phone use during motor vehicle operation, including history,statistics, rumors, other internal motor vehicle distractions, effects onattention, and safety recommendations.Research demonstrates that the focus regarding cellular phone use whiledriving, has changed from popularity issues to concern for road safety(Quittner 1; NHTSA 4-8; Sundeen 1-2). This is a result of inadequatereporting on state and national levels. "Cell Phones May Increase Accidents, NHTSA Report Says." Capital News Service 3 Apr. Retrieved July 29, 1999 from World Wide Web: wysiwyg://69/http://www.ncsl.org/programs/esnr/398cellp.htmThe Post. People (88 percent) rate security asthe most important reason for owning a cell phone. Cummins reports that the Society of Automotive Engineers, GeneralMotors Corp., Ford Motor Co., Chrysler Corp., federal regulators, andindependent researchers are all studying distraction effects of devicessuch as global positioning system-based navigation systems, car-mountedcomputers, and cellular phones ( 2M). "The Effect of CelllularPhone Use Upon Driver Attention." National Public Services ResearchInstitute. Data shows that phone conversation more than dialingis the most frequent factor. Of primary concern were situationsthat could lead to an accident, of lessor concern were situations thatenabled the driver to reach the proposed destination. The NHTSA reports that manufacturing goals need to include the makingof cellular telephones "as compatible with safe driving as the state-of-the-art allows" to include human factors, engineering, and driver education(14). LITERATURE REVIEW Introduction This literature review concerning cellular phone use during motorvehicle operation and its affect on traffic accidents, will address thefollowing areas relevant to this study: history of cellular phone use;relevant statistics; rumors regarding cellular phone hazards; otherinternal motor vehicle distractions; effects on attention; safety issuerecommendations; and conclusion. The literature regarding rumors of cellular phone hazards consists ofmany articles that either make unsubstantiated claims, quote the same twostudies repeatedly, or spout public opinion only and attempt to establish aconnection from opinion to fact. The information regarding the two states isincomplete, therefore claims made are unsubstantiated (1).Substantiated Rumors Ralston cites the study by Redelmeier and Tibshirani, as do many otherauthors, which is a substantiated claim. "Car Phones Called Growing Distraction." The Dallas Morning News 8 Jan. An emergency room doctor reports treating a driver who crashedwhile changing a tape and another who crashed while reaching into the glovecompartment for a disc ("The Post" 1). Conclusions stated that more researchis needed to gather statistics regarding cell phone distraction and trafficaccidents (1). Jacobson reports safety tips for cell phone users. As of March 1998,Congressstill had not enacted a statute or mandate that governs the issue ofwireless phones in vehicles (1-2). Retrieved July 29, 1999 from World Wide Web: http://www.saif.com/Safety_art/cell_ph.htmCummins, Arthur J. A more recentfocus for the NHTSA consisted of investigation into the possible hazards ofcell phone use during motor vehicle operation, with an effort to provideknowledge to the public, wireless industry, and states. McKnight and McKnightreport findings that cell phone use affects driver attention, however theassumption that this leads to increased accidents is unsubstantiated (1-2). Limitations regarding safety issuescan be overcome with increases in accurate reporting and data collecting. Only two states haveforms documenting cell phone information and this information is limited.Data concerns both negative and positive aspects of cell phone use.Reporting methods vary and are duplicate, inconsistent, incomplete, orinaccurate, which substantiates the need for further investigative surveyregarding this issue. This study isquoted frequently in the literature, resulting in an inaccurate impression. In 1991, the National Public Services Research Institute studied theeffect of cellular phone use, during motor vehicle operation, on driverattention. Analysis of NorthCarolina data shows increases in crash incidence with increases in numbersof cellular phones over a several year period, however this analysis isbased on a limited amount of data from a single state and cannot bepredictive of a future that includes improvements in products and services(NHTSA 9-1 ) The NHTSA also reports that on-the-road studies show that disruptionsdue to manual dialing compared to manual radio tuning, with regard tolanekeeping or speed maintenance, were little to none. A survey by Prevention Magazine showed that 18 percent of drivers thoughttheir cell phones were distracting and 7 percent believed the distractionto be the same or more so than that of tuning a car radio. Works CitedAssociated Press. A 1998 report by Sundeen, Policy Associate, National Conference ofState Legislatures (NCSL), Environment, Energy and Transportation, providesan overview of cellular telephones in motor vehicles. Past research regarding the history of cellular phones, consistentlydemonstrates the fast growth of its popularity, and resulting increase inconcern for its safe use in motor vehicles. Size,flexibility, connectivity, and voice communication were the primary earlyfocus of the cellular industry. 1998: 2M. Policy makers now weigh theevidence of cell phone dangers against their benefit. Retrieved July 29, 1999 from World Wide Web: http://www.drivers.com/driving/articles/cellphonefacts.html"Car Telephone Use Affects Driver Behavior." Nordic Road & Research Transport Research 3.1 (1996)."Cell Phones, Motor Vehicles & Risk Management." SAIF Corporation June 1997. As the cellular phone becomes more widely used, the concern for roadsafety increases. Boney also cites Redelmeier and Tibshirani to substantiate the claimthat "every day there are new stories and studies correlating wirelessphones and traffic accidents" (1). Conclusions state that simple cell phone conversations ormaking the call have little effect on people noticing and responding tohighway demands, intense cellular phone conversations should be avoidedwhile driving, and cell phone use by the elderly, particularly age 7 andbeyond, should be limited to emergency, non-driving situations (McKnightand McKnight Passim). Drivers shouldkeep conversations short and avoid intensity. The author presents an inaccurateand incomplete summary of this report. Quittner reports that the cellular phone has grown and been morepopular than any other communications device in the last nine years, tenmillion subscribers bought this product during this time period. Thereis an under-reporting bias found in the data, however, trends show cellularphone use as a growing factor in crashes, with driver inattention as themost frequent cause. "Menace to Society?" Wireless Review 15 Feb. This focus led to its increase inpopularity; drivers commuting or traveling could now easily use the cellphone to be more productive (5-6). Forexample, in 1997, Jacobson reports that a research study shows increasedrisk of accidents with cell phone use while driving to be four-fold. Thus rumors, have contributed to the current status of concernregarding cell phone safety. The NHTSA provides the most comprehensive overview of the subject, andthey conclude that further research with accurate data collecting is neededbefore any conclusions or predictions can be drawn (4). The user group has thus expanded from themiddle-aged businessman; the young and elderly tend to make personal calls. Billing records were reviewed regarding the timesand number of calls made on the day of the collision. It was assumed that this would lead to an increase inaccidents, however, data is lacking. Scott. The distractionswere, making a cell phone call, a simple cell phone conversation, a complexcell phone conversation, radio tuning, and no distraction (McKnight andMcKnight 1-2). No statistics arecited (5A). Other Internal Motor Vehicle Distractions A literature review regarding other internal motor vehicledistractions will show that information is limited and lacks statisticaldata. The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration reported in 1993,that only 28 out of over 53, fatal automobile accidents (. This report furtherstates that approximately 345, people owned a cellular phone in 1985,and it is estimated that 54 million people in the United States now ownwireless phones. The Insurance ResearchCouncil studied 2, 94 adults and 84 percent perceived the cell phone as adistraction that would increase the possibility of an accident (1). Hands-free voicecommunications tend to effect driver situational awareness rather thanvehicle control (11-12). Articles report the same statistics over andover or fail to report any at all; public opinion reflects this reportingbut also shows continued cell phone use (Troxel 1). Assorted Press reports that afederal study found that onboard navigation systems, portable fax machinesand other electronic devices, eating, using entertainment systems, andadjusting dashboard controls can all be distracting. 1998. "Some Facts On Cell Phones and Driving." Canada: CWTA, 1998). 1998: 5A.Barnes, Rosemary. Department of Transportation reportsincreases in numbers of complaints about drivers talking on phones whiledriving, but this information does not decisively connect cell phones toaccidents. Around 9percent of current cellular telephone users in the U.S. Cell phones are becoming smaller and less expensive. A Cellular Revolution 3 Nov. This study then citesRedelmeier and Tibshirani in an effort to leap from public opinion tosubstantiated rumors regarding cell phones and accidents ("Hang" 14A). However, dataindicates that both can be disruptive and associated with distraction, andcrash data shows radio tuning to be related to crashes. This data includes the following: In the driver age groups 25 to29 (17,246 drivers), 3 to 34 (17,378 drivers), and 35 to 64 (52,642drivers), one percent of the multiple-vehicle crashes was due to the use ofa cell phone or citizens-band radio and in other groups neither was afactor; in the driver age groups 15 to 19 (5,3 3 drivers), 25 to 29 (3,48 drivers), and 35 to 64 (9,752 drivers), one percent of the single-vehiclecrashes involved a cell phone or CB radio; and in the age group 3 to 34(3,399 drivers), two percent of the single-vehicle crashes involved thesedevices - neither was a factor for other age groups ("Fixit" 11E). A., and Robert J. Results showed that all distractions led to significant increases infailure to respond or response time; complex phone conversations were themost distracting (29 percent) and simple conversations were the leastdistracting (2 percent). 1995: 11E."Hang Up and Drive//Or Pull Over and Talk - Your Choice." MinneapolisStar Tribune 19 July 1999: 14A.Jacobson, Jeannette. The authors conclude that cell phone use representsa risk factor of 4.3 or a fourfold increase in accidents - a similar valueto that of drunk driving (453). "Carmakers Looking at Gadget Overload Hazard."Minneapolis Star Tribune 4 Apr. Effects of cell phone use on response to trafficsituations was the worst (two to three times greater) for the elderly group(ages 5 to 8 ). Consistent increases in the raising of this concern bythe public, legislative, and media, led to the research and reportgenerated by the NHTSA in 1997. Jacobson reports hazards linked to cellular phones, statingthat drivers are distracted, have longer response times, have intenseconversations that are more distracting than talking to a passenger, mayfail to notice a traffic situation due to phone handling, and may endangerothers on the roadway as well as themselves. Safe driving should be apriority with hanging up during demanding traffic situations. Troxel reports that most drivers with cell phones agree to thepotential dangers, but chose to use them anyway. Datacollection and reporting needs to be improved. NHTSA uses The Fatal Analysis ReportingSystem (FARS) and the National Automotive Sampling System (NASS), whichrely on police crash reports, to identify emerging safety problems. "Do Cellular Phones Cause More Vehicle Accidents?" Safety Meeting Outline 97- 7 2, 1997. Wheaton IL: Insurance Research Council, 1997.Quittner, Joshua. The literature provides information that will enable cellular phoneuse during driving to become safer. Educational materials regarding the hazards of driving during cellphone use, must be developed and given to the driving public. These studies also do not consider thenumber of accidents that have been avoided by cell phone use (1-2). They contacted 5,89 drivers and 1 64 reported having a cellularphone; 742 of these consented to participate. A literature review regarding other internal motor vehicledistractions shows that while other possible distractions are recognizedand studied, statistical data regarding effects on traffic accidents islacking. Other claims, such as a state reportfinding fatigue rather than cellular phone use as a major variable inaccidents, lack citations (1-2). A Norwegian project reviewed 16 experimental studies from differentcountries and found that performance deteriorated during cell phoneconversations, demonstrated by an increase in reaction time. These statements are notsubstantiated with any data. Specifically the1997 report included information regarding the following: effects of cellphone use while driving on increased risk of crash, prevalence of thispossibility, and options for enhanced safety during cellular phone use(NHTSA 4-6). Both states therefore may reflect either under-reporting or lower statistics demonstrating small risk. 1998. 1997: 1-18. One of the problems with existing research is the lack of sufficientdata regarding affects of cell phone use while driving, on trafficaccidents. "Cell Phones Distract Drivers." The Post 8 Jan. Only Oklahoma and Minnesota have forms with data elements addressingcell phone use as a pre-crash variable; Minnesota reports presence ratherthan use of the phone. S. The cellular phone industry demonstrates emphasis on safety throughoutthe growth of the product. Most states do not monitor the situation and other surveysoffer limited information. One study conducted itsown survey and reports a four-fold risk increase. Rumors of Cellular Phone Hazards A review of literature regarding rumors of cellular phone hazards willdemonstrate that there are numerous unsubstantiated rumors, very fewsubstantiated rumors, and an array of public attitudes that facilitate therumor process.Unsubstantiated Rumors Ralston contributes to the unsubstantiated rumor that cell phonescause accidents, with quotes from people claiming that they might miss anexit while driving. Of this group theresearchers obtained billing records for, and studied 699 drivers with cellphones, who were involved in accidents that resulted in property damagewith no personal injury. History of Cellular Phone Use A review of the history of cellular phone use will demonstrate thatwhile early focus on cell phones regarded growth in wireless communication,more recent focus includes a concern for highway safety. Over 98, wirelessemergency calls are delivered daily to emergency services; this amount isten times more than the numbers made ten years ago. The previous study is quoted over and over in the literature. Cellular Phone Use & Driver Attention The literature presents studies on the effects of cellular phone useon driver attention, which may or may not actually be related to trafficaccidents. Other distractions include tuning aradio, eating, or scolding a child in the backseat, according toenforcement officials in Cincinnati (Ralston 1). "Wireless Communications." Testimony U. No longera tool for only the very rich, the cell phone has become less and lessexpensive and it is becoming commonplace among the public (1). The study consisted of 151 subjects, five distractionconditions, and 47 situations that would require the driver to respond witha manipulation of vehicle controls. Other distractions are reported to be involved in automobileaccidents. Tibshirani. The studies by Redelmeier and Tibishirani, and the NHTSA arecited. Findings showed that24 percent or 17 drivers used the cell phone within a 1 -minute periodbefore the accident. Drivers should keep more distancebetween cars and consider hands-free kits (1). The NHTSA reports crash data. The NHTSA report is also cited,again, stating that cell phone drivers had increased numbers of accidents.The CEO claims that although concern exists regarding the actualconversations while driving, a hands-free cell phone kit can be beneficialto eliminate accidents that occur because people's hands are not on thesteering wheel (1). "Cell Phones Owners Prefer to Ignore Risks; Use Phones While Driving, Says New Survey." In Public Attitude Monitor. "Cellular Telephones in Motor Vehicles." NCSL Environment, Energy and Transportation Program Apr. The growth rate of 4 percent is expected to continue.It is concluded that 85 percent of these owners use their cellular phoneswhile driving. Relevant Statistics The literature shows insufficient data regarding cellular phone useduring motor vehicle operation and negative or positive affects on trafficaccidents. The NHTSA provides a more accurate representation of the issue,presenting, for example, police crash reports and their limitations (4).Positive effects of cell phone use, such as increased public safety, arealso reported (Wheeler 1-2). "An Investigation of the Safety Implications of Wireless Communications in Vehicles." NHTSA Nov. Further the author quotes a victim of an accidentinvolving cell phone use; interestingly the same person states that he nowis "very conscious" while continuing with cell phone use (1-2).Public Opinion and Demographics The NHTSA report lists user demographics and public opinion. Troxel, Terrie E. Dialingshould be resisted during heavy traffic. With this increase in use has come an increase in concernfor potential dangers and traffic safety. The industry has continually strived forimprovement in the ease of cell phone use, with installed car phones,memory-dials, and voice activation features (NHTSA 7-8). Focus groupswith law enforcement personnel found cellular phones to be a positivedevice since they are used to report emergencies (8-9). It is predicted thatthere will be around 8 million cell phone users in the United states bythe year 2 . Barnes offers another example of citing the study by Redelmeier andTibshirani, and using this to substantiate the rumor that car phones are adangerous distraction. Initially, safety effects of having acellular phone in the vehicle were documented; drivers with cell phonesensure security of themselves and others since they are able to reporthazards such as congestion, crashes, or reckless driving. Retrieved July 29, 1999 from World Wide Web: http://www.eig.com/smos/smo97 72.htmMcKnight, James, and McKnight, A. The 1997 report by NHTSA states that there is insufficient data todemonstrate the magnitude of a safety problem related to cellular telephoneuse during motor vehicle operation. "Fatal Wreck Rekindles Debate Over Cell Phones." The Cincinnati Enquirer 11 Jul. Theauthor also states that the U.S. The complexity of issuesinvolved and lack of available information should prohibit immediate stateor legislative actions regarding cellular phone use during motor vehicleoperation (14-16). Landover, MD, 1991.National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA). In fact the number of traffic accidents has remainedthe same or declined. 1997.Redelmeier, Donald. 5 percent)were cited as specifically involving cell phone use as a contributingfactor ("Cell" 2). However the mere number of timesthat this study is cited over and over, contributes to the rumor thatcellular phones cause increased accidents, which may or not be a fact(Ralston 2). The NHTSA report substantiatesexisting concern and points to the need for further investigation. Manufacturers have efforted to educate users onhow to use the cell phone safely. A literature review of cellular phone use and its affect on driverattention reveals that correlations between the two variables does exist.However, these findings can only imply effects on traffic accidents, andstatistical substantiation is still lacking, which points to the need forfuture investigation regarding this topic. A 1998 surveydemonstrated that 35 percent of drivers used their cell phones in anemergency or life-saving situation. Redelmeir and Tibshirani conducted a study andreported the risk for accident to increase four-fold (453). House of Representatives Subcommittee on Telecommunications, TR and Consumer Protection, 1999. Wheeler reports that cellular phone usage contributes to public safetydue to its involvement in emergency phone calls. 1992: 7c.Wheeler, Thomas E. "Fixit // Do Cellular Phones Cause Auto Accidents?" Minneapolis Star Tribune 15 Nov. Thecomplexity of the telephone task was correlated with increased performancedecrements. The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) reportsthat the cellular telephone was introduced in 1983, and has since thenincurred a growth rate of around 4 percent per year. The author further substantiates therumor by stating that nine countries have laws regarding hands-free kits,according to a CEO of CellPort Labs. For example the NHTSA report statesthat there will likely be around 8 million cellular telephone users in theyear 2 , which is a growth rate of approximately 4 percent per yearrather than double.
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