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ANGLO-JAPANESE TREATIES.
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Examines goals & effects of three 18th-19th Cent. agreements between England & Japan, focusing on resulting Japanese modernization & development.... More...
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Paper Abstract:
Examines goals & effects of three 18th-19th Cent. agreements between England & Japan, focusing on resulting Japanese modernization & development.
Paper Introduction:
INTRODUCTION
Japan was a country isolated form the rest of the world for most of her history. Japan is an island, making it difficult to access, and this fact also separated it from most of the history of other Asian nations. This began to change when the first European ships arrived and sought trade with different parts of Asia. Japan resisted for a time, but eventually the Japanese began to see certain defense and trade advantages in making alliances with different countries. One of the major sources for this effort was a fear of Russia and a desire to keep Russia at bay. The United States was the first to try to open Japan to the outside world, but Britain also became interested in a defense and trade alliance with Japan and with China and so sought the means to accomplish such an agreement. At the end of the
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France created a sphere of influence inthe region of the southern provinces of China, while Russia did the samething in Manchuria. Because of these shifts, Ambassador Katoadvised his government not to insist on the inclusion of any important newitems during negotiations. TheJapanese announced that they would open their market, but they also said itcould not be done all at once. However, she found herself immediately afterwards faced by a more considerable challenge. Within Japan, various groups were turning against aregime which they believed was responsible for the chaos and distress theysaw all around them. The European powers moved slowly but inexorablytoward Japan, with first India and then China absorbing their interests.Competition between the great shipping interests of Britain and the UnitedStates led eventually to assaults on Japan as a trading candidate. Shibusawa Keizo also writes: "The so-called civilization of Japan atthe beginning of the Meiji Era was, it can be said, an imitation of thebourgeois civilization of the West. [24]Ibid., 151. [7]Keizo, 47. Growth was rapid so that by 19 Japan's capitalindustries had reached a level of technology comparable to that of theWest.[13] At the beginning of this century, some Japanese wanted an alliancewith the Russians in order to develop a compromise over Russo-Japaneserelations. Japanrestarted her demands, and in 19 4 Japan declared war on Russia. [29]Ibid., 13 . Russiafaced a revolution at home, and Japan could no longer sustain casualtiesand expenditures at increasing levels. [3 ]Ibid., 131.----------------------- 17 [5]Shibusawa Keizo, Japanese Society in the Meiji Era (Tokyo: Obunsha,1958), 4 . The secondstage of withdrawal, however, was delayed without explanation, so theJapanese government decided to seek a more general settlement with Russia,given that she could do so now form a position of greater strength. If either signatory power engaged in hostilities with one power in the Far East area, the other would remain neutral, but hostilities with two or more powers would oblige the other signatory power to participate.[14]The term of the treaty was five years. The Rise of Modern Japan. The Role of Meiji Militarism in Japan's Technological Progress." Journal of Economic History, Vol. The Development of Economic Life in Japan. The Anglo-Japanese alliance was part of the change takingplace as Japan turned outward more than inward, and within a few decadesJapan would hold a position of leadership and influence that was quite newto her. This was the foundation of Japaneseliberalism. Concise Dictionary of Modern Japanese History. They did not intend to sacrifice tradition or the basicstructure of their society. . The third alliance was indeed signed in londonon July 13 and made public two days later, and the renewed alliance wasreceived with mixed feelings, not with the unanimity of approval seen in19 2. Ambassador Kato had been concerned with preserving the Anglo-Japanese Alliance as the cornerstone of Japanese diplomacy in spite of theFranco-Japanese and Russo-Japanese agreements signed within the precedingfew years.[28] The alliance would expire at the end of ten years, so in 1921 theissue of renewal occupied the public. New York: Harper & Row, 1973.Yamamura, Kozo. Education wasimproved, and the people were educated in banking and financial matters.Military preparedness was the principal aim of industrialization, so thefirst to be established were munitions plants, heavy industries, andcommunications facilities. New York: Institute of Pacific Relations, 194 .Prestowitz, Clyde V. The Japanese culturefound a way to satisfy the West while retaining its own style. Japan's Emergence as a Modern State. BibliographyBeasley, W.G. [23]Ibid., 149. Washington, D.C.: The American University, 1982.Hunter, Janet. Japan also avoidedforeign investment and sought the technology of the West not to bewesternized but to maintain her autonomy and purity as a society. This would lastunit 1921, when the United States wold bring pressure to replace the closealliance with the Washington Four Power Treaty, leading to Britain andJapan drifting apart.[25] When the broader Anglo-Japanese Alliance was signed in 19 5, bothBritain and the United States recognized Japan's rights in Korea. They borrowed different ideas from different Westerncountries and instituted their own versions of them as needed.[11] FIRST TREATY Japan was opened to the West in 1853 when Admiral Perry sailed intoTokyo Bay and found a country still in a feudal stage of development. . [11]Ibid., 2 -22. They introduced two European institutions--parliamentarygovernment and the political party. Instead, the government resorted to thepolicy of restricting trade. 27, No. Britainand the United Stats did not look favorably on these developments but didnothing directly to stop the process. By 1898, though, there were many in the Foreign Office whofavored a different source, and foreign Minister Nashi could then reply tothe British minister in Tokyo "that the Japanese entertained no objectionto her occupation of Weihaiwei after Japan's withdrawal."[18] MinisterKato received this message and urged a more favorable attitude towardsLondon in return for British support for the Japanese position in Korea.In 19 1, Foreign Minister Kato told Minister Hayashi to open negotiationswith Great Britain.[19] Negotiations took place rapidly, and within a relatively short timeLord Lansdowne handed a draft to Minister Hayashi, who sent it on to Tokyo. especially to her position in Korea, where Russia seized most of Manchuria on the pretext that Boxers threatened the railway installations there.[21] A realignment of the major powers emerged from this turbulence.France and Germany continued to support Russia, while Britain and Americacame together in a policy they called the Open Door intended to preserveequality of opportunity for foreign trade in China. Within ashort time, both sides had good reason to end the hostilities. Herbert Norman, Japan's Emergence as a Modern State (New York:Institute of Pacific Relations, 194 ), 11. Feudalism was abolished, and the Daimyo surrendered theirfiefs to the Throne. [4]Ibid., 39. However, by this time theconsiderable opposition raised in the British dominions and by the UnitedStates was in the open and was also reported in the Japanese press: Thus, there was profound skepticism as to its continued existence, though an abrupt termination of an international agreement which had so long influenced the destinies of two empires was thought inadvisable. The adoption of aparliamentary system was also not without its conflicts and itsbloodshed.[1 ] Japan did not produce truly liberal political institutions in spiteof the adoption of Western parliamentarianism, but Japanese economicmodernization along Western lines was very successful. TheBritish also achieved a new strength in Asia that would last until WorldWar II. They were united in their conviction that they alone hadthe experience needed and the sense of responsibility to direct the affairsof the state. This couldbe seen clearly in the formation of the new Meiji government itself, whichin 1868 came to power with the intention of replacing the old feudal systemwith a more effective centralized rule and of starting Japan on the road totechnological modernization, which was valuable to the state up to acertain point. . The treaty was not announcedimmediately in order to delay public criticism of the government over theTreaty of Portsmouth, but criticism was leveled anyway.[27] By 1911, the situation in the Far East had changed greatly. The Revolution of1868 was a restoration to power of the Imperial dynasty, leading to theMeiji period lasting into this century. Japan also disapproved but was tooweak to do anything about it on her own. Martin's Press, 199 .Bunge, Frederica M. [17]Tatsuji Takeuchi, War and Diplomacy in the Japanese Empire (GardenCity, New York: Doubleday, Doran & Company, 1935), 124. The Role of Meiji Militarism inJapan's Technological Progress," Journal of Economic History, Vol. [25]David Walder, The Short Victorious War: The Russo-Japanese Conflict19 4-5 (New York: Harper & Row, 1973), 297. This could be seen clearlyin the formation of the new Meiji government itself, which in 1868 "enactedthe regulations, set up the three powers of the government (executive,legislative and judicial) as well as a system for the public election ofthe government officials, following the systems practiced in modern nationsin the West."[7] The actual conditions of government were more complicatedas feudal structures remained, but Japan was looking to the West for amodel even as she was arming herself in case the West intruded militarily. [21]W.G. The alliance was renewed again for ten years in 1911. The process ofconcentration by enterprising merchants and financiers led to the creationof the "financial clique," or zaibatsu. "Success Illgotten? In 19 5, Sir Claude MacDonaldbecame the first full Ambassador of any Western nation accredited to Japan. Japan had reacted first to changes taking place in China afterthe defeat of China in 1894-1895. New York: St. On the other, co-operation with Russia was only likely to be possible at the cost of accepting Russian domination of the mainland north of the Great Wall.[22]The choice was therefore between extending trade with the central andsouthern provinces of China under the auspices of the British or securing agreater stake in Korea in order to deal with Russia: "The dilemma was inone form or another to be central to Japanese policy decisions for the nextthirty years."[23] The consideration of an alliance with Britain in 19 1 was the firstoccasion for debating these issues. The intention of the leadership was to modernize rather than toWesternize. These firms organized an electricpower system and built great industries. Yamamura also notes the relationship between the foreign threat,beginning with the opening of Japan to external trade. [16]Ibid., 8. Martin'sPress, 199 ), 149. The feudal control of markets was in disarray. The Short Victorious War: The Russo-Japanese Conflict 19 4- 5. INTRODUCTION Japan was a country isolated form the rest of the world for most ofher history. Britain had to decide whether Japanesehelp would make it worthwhile to abandon its "splendid isolation." Japanhad to decide what Russia might be induced to concede. Achange came about in 1858 when Japan signed commercial treaties with fivecountries, less as a choice than because it was increasingly apparent thatJapan could no longer avoid freer trade with foreign nations. In 1911 the Anglo-Japanese alliance was renewed for ten years. Prestowitz, Trading Places (New York: Basic Books, 1988),8. Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1984.Keizo, Shibusawa. This would change the country forever, but itwould not be the type of change the West envisioned. Theprevailing social and political idea was an Anglo-American liberalism, andthis made a strong contrast to the conservative idea that had prevailed infeudal society, leading to antagonism between the old and new ideas. This reluctance of taking a definite step to abruptly terminate this agreement led to the joint notification to the League of nations on July 7, 1921, recognizing the superior obligations under the League to those under the alliance.[29]The alliance was replaced by the Four Power Act of 1921, including Indiawithin the operation of the original alliance. The samurai were reduced from being hereditary arms-bearers and pensioners to the status of commoners, leading to considerableresentment among the more conservative elements. [15]Ibid., 7. Foreigners could trade at one of twoplaces, the small port of Shimoda or the small fishing port of Hakodate innorthern Japan: This was the first of what would become known in later years as "market-opening packages." While thus attempting to limit the extent of foreign intrusion, Japan immediately launched an intensive and historic effort to catch up with the industry and technology of the West.[12] Japan negotiated trade treaties so that foreigners were preventedfrom doing business in the interior of the country. Herbert. . Japan during this era maintained her policy of seclusion. The terms of the alliance were revised in 19 5 "andbroadened to provide for the defense of British interests in India an amore precise recognition of Japan's hegemony in Korea."[15] The term wasextended to ten years. 1 (March 1977), 113-138.----------------------- [1]Takao Tsuchiya, The Development of Economic Life in Japan (Tokyo:Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai, 1936), 21-22. By the outbreak of World War I in 1914, two years after the close of the Meiji period, Japan was the dominant power in East Asia.[26]Under the renewal in 19 5, Great Britain recognized Japanese political,military, and economic interests in Korea, and the scope of the alliancewas extended to include India, as noted. Japanese Society in the Meiji Era. . Garden City, New York: Doubleday, Doran & Company, 1935.Tsuchiya, Takao. Herbert Norman sees therapidity and comparative ease with which Japan shifted from a feudal to anindustrialized economy as being explained by two fortuitous circumstances:1) the internal crisis of feudal society; and 2) pressure from the Westernnations.[2] The two became juxtaposed with what Norman calls "the forcingof the closed door," or the effort of the West to open Japan to trade andother intercourse. The governmentabolished the samurai and eta classes, the latter having been limited forcenturies to menial or humiliating occupations and an outcast socialstatus. Tokyo: Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai, 1936.Walder, David. The leaders of the Restorationwere young samurai of the great western fiefs who became a self-perpetuating oligarchy more influential in the Meiji government than theEmperor himself. There was opposition to this policy, with thestrongest coming from foreign capitalist countries: "They tried to defeatthe government policy, resorting to every means, even to the sword andfire."[5] Efforts such as this clearly contributed to the militarizationof Meiji society in subsequent years as the Japanese leadership wasconvinced the West would make military incursions into Japanese territory. The British and the Japanese renewed their agreement twice, eachtime seeking some change in the basic agreement while reaffirming the needfor an alliance. Tokyo: Obunsha, 1958.Norman, E. Thegovernment was faced with the need to destroy the old in order to build thenew.[9] The Meiji period was the beginning of the rapid development ofeconomic life in Japan, a period of modernization and of the emergence ofnew elites based on expertise and technical knowledge. They did send students and statesmen abroad tolearn about new ideas on which reforms could be based. Thiswas a country that had isolated itself rigorously from the rest of theworld, but Perry issued an order that Japan would have to open her marketsor face the consequences. [12]Clyde V. The Boxer Rebellion in Chinadistracted the japanese further: The Peking legations of the powers came under siege, and in the next few months Japan won international reputation by providing the bulk of the troops for the expedition that relieved them. [2 ]Ibid, 126-127. [1 ]Frederica M. However, after negotiations between Hayashi Tadasu, theJapanese envoy in London, and Lord Lansdowne, an Anglo-Japanese alliancewas concluded and would be effective from January 3 , 19 2: The terms of the alliance recognized a common interest in opposing Russian expansion, promising mutual help for the preservation of U.K. Japan now had to transform her economic life quickly into a modern capitalistic system."[1] The speed of the transition from feudalism to modern industrialsociety has been noted by many observers, including contemporaryjournalists and travelers. Britainwas long the leader in opening trading routes in the Far East: Its great shipping rival the United States. Numerous business enterprises andfinancial institutions were developed at this time. [13]Ibid., 7-9. By thisagreement, Japan gained a protectorate over Korea, which would be followedin 191 by a treaty of annexation making Korea an integral part of theJapanese empire. Another revision was undertaken in 1911 because ofimproved relations with Russia, deteriorating relations with Germany, andthe fact that Japan had annexed Korea: Japan invoked the alliance in order to declare war on Germany in 1914. It remained legally in force until the effecting of the Washington Four-Power Treaty, which replaced it in August 1925.[16] The Japanese had started developing a desire for a closer alliancewith Great Britain some time before actually doing so. Thealliance itself was being looked upon as a source of friction andapprehension rather than as a means to better international relations.Great Britain felt she could no longer ignore the opinions of her dominionsand the general sentiment of the Americans about the alliance. . One of the major sources for thiseffort was a fear of Russia and a desire to keep Russia at bay. New York: Basic Books, 1988.Takeuchi, Tatsuji. [8]Ibid., 57. This document "was designedto meet the threatening attitudes of Russia and Germany."[3 ] CONCLUSION In the Meiji period, a change came over Japan as the country shiftedfrom an inward-looking country to an outward-looking country. The cabinet decided to accept the London draft late in November.[2 ] The Japanese wanted to solve the issues raised by the turbulence ofthe era. [6]Kozo Yamamura, "Success Illgotten? The treaty was seen by the Britishas an end to "Splendid Isolation" and as a warning to the Russians; theJapanese saw it as a triumph, one that put Japan on an equal footing withthe great powers. [26]Bunge, 29. Yamamura writes: After being forced to sign the humiliating treaties with the Western powers and witnessing also the fate of China, the new Meiji government hastened to expand Japan's military capabilities."[6]Still, in spite of this sense of humiliation at the hands of the West andthe concomitant desire for protection, Japan had shifted from an inward-looking country to an outward-looking country. 27, No.1 (March 1977), 113-114. America offered to mediate, and atruce was signed.[24] This war was a result of the first alliance andshowed how Japan intended to use her ties with the West to create astronger defense position for herself. [18]Ibid., 125. rights and interests in China, and of Japan's interests in China and Korea. E. There were three alliances with Britain over a period of about 2 years. It becamenecessary to amend the alliance because of the pending British-Americanarbitration treaty in 1911. Bunge, Japan: A Country Study (Washington, D.C.: TheAmerican University, 1982), 3-4. Meanwhile Japan continued to strengthen its military and naval forces. It was probably inevitable thatthis would take place. BACKGROUND The last half of the Tokugawa period began in the middle of theeighteenth century, and this was also the era of the rise of industrialismin Europe. Korea continued to be a problem for the area, andafter 1895 Korea replaced Russia as Japan's primary competitor. now began to show a keen interest in gaining definite treaty rights guaranteeing its shipping interests in the Far East."[4] This push came at a fortuitous time as the controls of feudal societywere breaking down. At the endof the nineteenth century, the first of several Anglo-Japanese alliancetreaties came into being, offering each of the signatories some of whatthey wanted and creating a relationship that would last into the twentiethcentury. [14]Janet Hunter, Concise Dictionary of Modern Japanese History (LosAngeles: University of California Press, 1984), 7. The impetus for the first of these was the desire on the part ofJapan to protect herself from encroachments by Russia, and while the Russo-Japanese war resulted, Japan did succeed in cutting the ground from underRussia and in attaining a new international position for herself. [27]Takeuchi, 128-129. [2]E. This view is foundespecially among semi-official papers: Thus, in a long memorandum to Tokyo, written on march 26, 1898, Minister Kato in London vigorously urged the home government to open negotiations for an Anglo-Japanese understanding.[17]Weihaiwei had been under Japanese occupation since 1895, and the publicsupported this until the Chinese could make full payment of its warindemnity. After the signing,Russia agreed to withdraw her forces from Manchuria in April 19 2, and thiswas evidently a response to pressure brought by the alliance. War and Diplomacy in the Japanese Empire. [3]Ibid., 35. When a threat from abroad developed, it is believedthat enemies of the feudal state used this fact as a lever to overturn it.Japan had long benefited from a fact of geography. This was an act ofconscious cultural borrowing, always seeking the best model they could findfrom whatever source. Japan could not standalong and so had to make a choice among these competing powers: On the one hand, free competition in the China trade was not altogether to her taste, because her industry had not yet reached a level at which it could challenge those of Britain and America in equal terms. Thepress was westernized and served the purposes of the government by keepingthe people aware of their new responsibilities, and it also offeredliberals and dissenters a degree of freedom of expression. Trading Places. Beasley, The Rise of Modern Japan (New York: St. The UnitedStates was the first to try to open Japan to the outside world, but Britainalso became interested in a defense and trade alliance with Japan and withChina and so sought the means to accomplish such an agreement. TakaoTsuchiya points out that this change would create an influence that wasenormous: The Japanese feudal economic order which was already on the verge of bankruptcy had to be swiftly revolutionized. [28]Ibid., 128-129. Japan is an island, making it difficult to access, and thisfact also separated it from most of the history of other Asian nations.This began to change when the first European ships arrived and sought tradewith different parts of Asia. FURTHER ALLIANCES The Anglo-Japanese Alliance was revised and renewed in 19 5, in partas a result of the Russo-Japanese War. Moreover. [22]Ibid., 149. Japan: A Country Study. Japan was the farthestremoved of the Asiatic states from the reach of the great European navalpowers: Nevertheless it was clear to both the western traders and Japanese statesmen that Japan, by relying on this accident of geography, could not forever avoid the day when some power would wait outside the closed gates, demanding an answer to the imperious command that Japan either be opened to world trade and intercourse or suffer the fate of India or China."[3] Such an effort to open Japan was led first by the Russians and thenby England, France, and the United States. TheRussian menace had by then been largely removed, which meant that theprimary reason for the original alliance was no longer present. They chose the best model in each field of technology andadministration and adopted them to make Japan powerful and a match forother nations. Thegovernment was forced to concentrate on efforts to avoid catastrophe andcould not address the situation by developing a modern production method tomeet the growing foreign demand. [19]Ibid., 125. Japan resisted for a time, but eventuallythe Japanese began to see certain defense and trade advantages in makingalliances with different countries. ."[8] When the ports were openedat the end of the Shogunate, grave social unrest and instability followed.At the same time, the Japanese were making every effort to introduce thecivilization of the West in building the new culture of Japan, and toaccomplish this the government encouraged the study of foreign languages,inviting foreigners as teachers and sending students abroad for study.Foreign books on certain subjects were translated and published. All suchefforts were at the behest and under the guidance of the governmentauthorities, and this was a key element in the way Japanese businessculture developed. Other actions followed: In 19 8 Japan signed an agreement with the United States to maintain the territorial integrity of China and equality of commercial rights there. The Germans were then seeking a triple alliance with Britainand Japan. The Ministry of Education worked to eradicateilliteracy and to train the populace in the duties of citizenship. [9]Ibid., 59. These early observers virtually dismissed thequestion by ascribing the change to a miracle or to the idea that Japan wasan apt pupil learning from the master-West.
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