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ACADEMIC PROCRASTINATION.
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Research proposal to determine relationships among academic procrastination, perceived fear of failure, text anxiety, self-concept, more.... More...
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Paper Abstract:
Research proposal to determine relationships among academic procrastination, perceived fear of failure, text anxiety, self-concept, more.
Paper Introduction:
ACADEMIC PROCRASTINATION IN RELATION TO FEAR OF FAILURE & RELATED ATTITUDES: A RESEARCH PROPOSAL
ABSTRACT
A research study is proposed to investigate the effects on academic procrastination of reductions in perceived fear of failure. Reductions in perceived fear of failure will be accomplished through reductions in the levels of test anxiety. Therefore, the proposed investigation will test relationship between levels of test anxiety and the frequency of academic procrastination.
One hypothesis, as follows, will be tested: The frequency with which a subject participates in academic procrastination will vary positively will the level of the subject’s perceived fear of failure as reflected by the level of test anxiety exp
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(1996, March-April). Threats to one's self-concept, therefore, may have negativeimpacts on ones affective state-emotional state. ERIC Document ED 4 1 811. Whereas poor or sub-standard academic performance in high school in the United States seldomprecludes college or university attendance, poor or sub-standard academicperformance in high school in both Brazil and Egypt almost always ends anindividual's academic career. (1989). 3. When the test anxietyinstrument was readministered six months subsequent to the completion ofthe experiment, the benefits of the self-hypnosis therapy to the subjectsassigned to the experimental remained clearly evident in their anxiety testscores which were substantially lower than those of the subjects assignedto the control group. Brophy(1996) pointed out that fear of failure can lead to academicprocrastination by both students who are ill prepared and by well preparedstudents who are perfectionists. The internalconsistency of the instrument was found to be high-Alpha Cronbach .89 formales and .91 for females. Thus, thisexperiment did not provide any direct evidence of the effect of the self-hypnosis therapy on academic performance. The literature indicates that the Test Anxiety Inventory is a validand reliable measure of test anxiety among high school students. Modeling test anxiety, self concept andhigh school students' academic achievement. The hypothesis willbe tested through the application of simple regression analysis proceduresto the data. Bagozzi, R. Whether a self-hypnosis therapy will ever be accepted inAmerican education is another issue. Smith, K. Effects of a persuasivecommunication on beliefs, attitudes, and career choice. Grube & Morgan (199 ) found that, among studentsaged 12 to 18, attitudes toward substance use and perceived substance useby friends consistently interacted to predict behavioral measures. By contrast the extrinsically motivated student participates in alearning activity "in order to obtain some reward or avoid some punishmentexternal to the activity itself" (Lumsden, 1994, p. Yang, R. Both cognitive behavioral therapy and rational-emotive therapy havebeen applied as the focus of interventions to reduce levels of testanxiety. (199 ). The researchersconcluded that the psychometric properties of the instrument cause the TestAnxiety Inventory to be more than adequate for the assessment of testanxiety as a global construct. Over the two week period following the administrationof the instrument, members of the research sample will be asked to maintaina diary in which they will record (1) dates of scheduled examination, (2)due dates for research papers, (3) due dates for any other writtenassignments, and (4) all work performed toward the completion of orpreparation for these requirements. A second limitation ofthe proposed study is the procedure of relying on student-maintaineddiaries to develop data on academic procrastination. While these findings document the existence of a relationshipbetween high levels of test anxiety and performance on mathematics tests,however, the findings do not provide a conclusive argument that testanxiety is the causal factor of poor performance. (2nd ed.). ERIC Digest.ERIC Document ED 37 2 . This studyfound no differences in levels of test anxiety experienced by female andmale students; however, the study did find that, in the United States,levels of test anxiety were higher among high school students of bothgenders than among college students. Social Psychology Quarterly,53, 329-339. A subject must exhibit subjective behavioral responses tothe feelings of apprehension or anxiousness in order to establish thepresence of anxiety. (1993, March-September). b. (199 ). Therefore, the proposed investigation will testrelationship between levels of test anxiety and the frequency of academicprocrastination. The Test Anxiety Inventory is a 3 -item instrumentthat measures individual differences in test-taking anxiety. Efficacy of two short-term cognitivetherapies for test anxiety. 89-112. Journal of Personalityand Social Psychology, 67(6), 949-971. What a simple correlation coefficient does not do,however, is to establish a causal relationship between the variables.Regression coefficients, either from simple or multiple regressionanalysis, however, can establish such causal relationships. Researchagendas in the sociology of emotions. Presence of persistent, recurrent, unexpected panicattacks. Journal of SocialPsychology, 13 , 141-15 . W. Journal of Youth andAdolescence, 21(2), 169-186. Theappropriate age range for the instrument is adolescent to adult. By contrast, the experiment found that when thebehavior required little effort, attitudes had a direct effect on behavior,unmediated by intentions, because minimal deliberate planning wasnecessary. Multiple regression, on the other hand, is a general statisticaltechnique through which one can analyze the relationship between adependent or criterion variable and a set of independent or predictorvariables. DSM-IV. (1994, October). Chinese Mental HealthJournal, 6(2), 74-76, 83. Skinner & Cattarello (1989) found that as commitment increased, normsbecame increasingly important relative to attitudes. Anxiety may be associated with thedevelopment of mood problems (Catanzaro, 1993). (1995). Group rational-emotive and cognitivebehavioral therapy. Washington: United StatesEducational Resources Information Center, 8pp. Implications The implications of the projected research findings and conclusion arethat educators should take an active role in teaching students how tominimize their fear of failure and, in turn, minimize their levels of testanxiety. An individual's self-concept may be affected by socioeconomic status,depending upon the psychological strength and maturity of the individual.Ethnicity most certainly affects self-concept through philosophies andvalues. The research also found, however, that whenintentions were poorly formed, attitudes had a direct effect on behavior,unmediated by intentions. E. Research reported byMadden, Scholder-Ellen, and Ajzen (1992) rests theoretically on the TRA andthe subsequent elaboration of the TRA-the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB). (1989). In this examination, the effects of RPT on the academicachievement, academic self-efficacy, and test anxiety of undergraduatestudents were measured. In developing information processing models of anxiety, one of themost basic questions is how such feared outcomes are organized or groupedin long-term memory (Weisz, Sweeney, Proffitt, & Carr, 1993). Eysenck, M. If a subject cannot react on a subjective level to afeeling of emotion, the subject is incapable of fulfilling one of thecriteria-a subjective behavioral response-for establishing the presence ofanxiety (Weisz, Sweeney, Proffitt, & Carr, 1993). D. (199 ). A subject must exhibit objective behavioral, physiologic, andcognitive responses to the feelings of apprehension or anxiousness in orderto establish the presence of anxiety. (1991, Fall). Interaction of anxiety and ability on taskperformance: A simultaneous consideration of parameters. (Ed.). P. ERIC Document ED 295 396. (199 ). There are three antecedents of anxiety. The TRA holds that short-term behavior is predicted best by intentionsto act that are influenced by both general attitudes towards the action inquestion and by social expectations or normative beliefs such as peerpressure. Mean scores on the Scholastic AptitudeTest were 13 points higher on the retesting than on the original testingof the 32 subjects included in the research sample. (199 ). Fishbein, M., & Stasson, M. Anintegration of social identity and self-awareness theories. The results of this evaluationsupported the internal consistency, test-retest stability, concurrentvalidity, and predictive validity of the instrument. Miscellaneous Supplies 15. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 2 ,1541-1557. Agoraphobia without a history of panic disorder: a. Journal of CrossCultural Psychology, 22(2), 238-249. The relation between perceived andpreventive action: A within-subject analysis of perceived driving risk andintentions to wear seatbelts. W., & Monks, F. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting ofthe Southeastern Psychological Association in Norfolk, Virginia, March1996. (1994, August). A subject must experience feelings of apprehension oranxiousness to establish the presence of anxiety. Undergraduate education majors enrolled in eitherhuman growth and development or educational psychology participated in thestudy. Social Psychology Quarterly, 54(2), 113-126. Among subjects known through prior psychological testing to becharacterized by high levels of anxiety, exposure to anxiety-inducing testinstructions produced greater detrimental effects on performance among malesubjects than among female subjects (Smith, Michael, and Hocevar, 199 ).This finding does not conflict with findings that female students generallyare more likely than are male subjects to experience test anxiety. Searching for certainty. C., & Karageorghis, C. These criteria are asfollows: 1. Subjects assigned to the experimental grouplearned a self-hypnosis technique to aid them in reducing their testanxiety. Neither of these approaches was foundto have a positive and significant impact on either the reduction of levelsof test anxiety or the improvement of levels of academic performance foreither female or male students. Clinical Pediatrics, 3 (7),441-445. (1995, October). Gordon, R. In essence, these two perceptions are virtuallyidentical, with differences between the two couched within the semantics ofopposing academic disciplines. The presence of a marked and persistent fear of clearlydiscernible objects or situations; or b. F. The theory of planned behavior. Anxiety disorder due to a medical condition; 5. Adler, N. Yang (1992) reported similaroutcomes from a study wherein rational-emotive group therapy was applied.In this study, subjects were taught to develop imagery to assist them indealing with test anxiety. The level of effortrequired for behaviour as a moderator of the attitude-behaviour relation.European Journal of Social Psychology, 2 , 45-59. In Abrams, D., & Hogg, M. (1993). Thus instrument was administered prior to ascheduled academic examination. Instruments The 3 -item Test Anxiety Inventory will be the instrument used in theproposed study to measure test anxiety experienced by subjects in theresearch sample (Spielberger, 1989). Herman, W. c. Were these outcomes to be attained, a greater proportion ofstudents would become academically productive-an outcome that would bebeneficial to students, educational institutions, and society as a whole. Ideology and emotion management: Aperspective and path for future research. OrganizationalBehavior and Human Decision Processes, 5 , 1-33. Decision making versus decisionimplementation: an action control approach to exercise adoption andadherence. Thus, higher levels of testanxiety will be associated with a higher frequency of occurrence ofacademic procrastination, while lower levels of test anxiety will beassociated with a lower frequency of occurrence of academicprocrastination. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Swets & Zeitlinger. A knowledge of the organization of fearedoutcomes in long-term memory would help to improve our understanding of theanxiety disorders because it may help to provide more precise predictionsabout differences within the anxiety disorders. One suchstudy involved a group of 353 university students in Bulgaria. and less than 1. Theliterature also indicates that investigations of the relationship betweentest anxiety and academic performance should be based on objective measuresof each of the variables, as opposed to a reliance on self-reporting bysubjects in relation to these variables. Thus, theanticipation is that the proposed research would confirm that a positiverelationship exists between test anxiety levels and the frequency ofacademic procrastination behavior. (1993). An invariant and immediate anxiety response uponexposure to a phobic stimulus as described above; and c. Grube, J. Validating a model developed to predict prenatal careutilization. Anxiety may be one of thecausal factors in the development of behavioral problems (Famularo &Fenton, 1994). K., & Katz, B. M., Irwin, C. Stress management for the learning disabled.ERIC Digest. (1991).Bias in interpretation of ambiguous sentences related to threat in anxiety.Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 1 (2), 144-15 . (1989). Granberg, D., & Holmberg, S. The literature generally indicates that higher levels of text anxietyare experienced by female high school students than by male high schoolstudents. (1998). A cognitive behaviouralgroup treatment for test-anxious adolescents. The Test Anxiety Scale has been subjected to at least 12 validity andreliability studies based on a search of Psychological Abstracts. This theory remains the dominant theoreticalframework in the attitude-behavior literature. L. Pintrich, P. B., & Ewigman, B. Alternatively, the case may be that networks offeared outcomes are more logically organized into two, three, four, or moreclusters of thematically similar outcomes such as psychic stress, physicalfears, or economic fears. Relationship between panic attacks andhealth locus of control. The literature indicates generally that high levels of test anxietyamong students are associated with lower levels of academic performance.While some researchers contend that test anxiety is a manifestation ofacademic performance, most researchers contend that it is academicperformance that is affected by test anxiety. Motivation and de-motivation insecondary education: Student characteristics. M., Terry, P. 2. (1991, July). (1994). E., & Hocevar, D. (199 ). Thus, developing effective interventionsto deal with academic procrastination cannot rely on a "one size fits all"approach. Schlegel, R. (1996, June). E. Bagozzi, R. Working with perfectionist students. Multiple regression may be viewed either as a descriptive toolby which the linear dependence of one variable on others is summarized anddecomposed, or as an inferential tool by which the relationships in thepopulation are evaluated from the examination of sample data. , which is an indication ofa perfect correlation. Therefore, the proposedinvestigation will test relationship between levels of test anxiety and thefrequency of academic procrastination. Williams (1991) discounted testanxiety as the cause of substandard academic performance. Females in somecultures are not expected to be able to qualify for college-level work, yetmany female students aspire to enter postsecondary studies, and this roleconflict exacerbates their experiences of test anxiety Sud (1991) examinedtest anxiety among students in India and the United States. J. Sharma, S., & Sud, A. Based on these findings, it was concluded thatpersonality characteristic most likely to hurt academic performance was ahigh fear of failure. Administration time rangesfrom 1 -to-15 minutes. (199 ). Possible selves and health behaviorsin later life. (1997,Summer). The experimental group was given test-taking instructions designed to induce higher levels of test anxiety, whilethe control group was provided with test-taking instructions designed toinduce lower levels of test anxiety. Gender differences in social andtest anxiety. Mood regulation expectancies, anxietysensitivity, and emotional distress. Feigel (1991)concluded that the application of propranolol was an effective therapy forstudents known to experience test anxiety. (1991). The subject has recognized that the obsessions orcompulsions are either: (1) Excessive; or (2) Unreasonable; and c. Lens, W., & Decruyenaere, M. As the preponderance of theliterature reviewed indicates that lower levels of test anxiety areassociated with higher levels of academic performance, however, one mayinfer that self-hypnosis therapy has a positive impact on academicperformance. The degree of intention formation asa moderator of the attitude-behavior relationship. These strategies, while eminentlylogical, however, frequently fail to address the underlying socioemotionalconcerns of students affected by test anxiety. American Journal of Psychology,11 (2), 225-258. RPT is a cooperative learning strategy which "capitalizes on the benefitstudents receive from preparing to tutor one another" (Griffin & Griffin,1998, p. Hypothesis One hypothesis will be tested through the conduct of the proposedresearch study. Journal of Research andDevelopment in Education, 25(1), 51-57. (1992) concluded that "in addition to changingbehavior indirectly through behavioral intentions, behavior may be changedby providing a mechanism for enacting plans to change actual control overthe behavior" (p. A sense of panic is a component of many anxiety disorders(American Psychiatric Association, 1994). (1992). Academic Procrastination in Relation to Fear of Failure & Related Attitudes: a research proposal abstract A research study is proposed to investigate the effects on academicprocrastination of reductions in perceived fear of failure. As an example, a mental representation ofa palpitation is common to most people; however, a strong tendency toassociate such an event with a heart attack most often is specific toindividuals with panic disorder. Telephone 5. Onesuch study involved a group of 977 university students in Japan. The researcherspostulated that behavioral commitment is associated with the development ofa peer culture that comes to control behavior independently of attitudes. Reasinger, R., & Brownlow, S. (1992, April). Learning and Instruction,1(2), 145-159. A subject must be capable of reacting subjectively to afeeling of emotion. Validating the Sarason TestAnxiety Scale. B., & Trudeau, L. Child Development, 67(3), 1173-1185. S. The budget would be as follows: Test Anxiety Inventory $ 65. The TRA can be considered an expansion of the Health Belief Model. J. (1992, April). Skinner, W. (1992, January). Most people are likely to commit to a specific behavior or set ofbehaviors if they believe the outcome is attainable. Rubenzer, R. Such an argument impliesthat subjects are fully competent to perform the mathematics tasks on whichthey are tested, and that a failure to perform such tasks satisfactorily isattributable only to a fear of being tested. Self-concept interprets andorganizes self-relevant actions and experiences. E. 3-9; Schlegel, et al., 1992). Although both cognitive behavioral therapy and rational-emotivetherapy concentrate on the tendency of individuals to construct and createtheir own emotional difficulties, cognitive behavioral therapy targetsprimarily one's thought processes, while rational-emotive therapy targetsprimarily one's feelings (Ellis, 1992). (1994). Journal of Research in Personality, 25, 285-3 1. (1996, April). Importantly, intention to use condoms wassignificantly associated with later usage. A subject must be capable of reacting objectively to afeeling of emotion. In Hagtvet, K. This line of reasoning, however, cannot be used to justify acontention that female students generally do not possess an aptitude formathematics. A. (1991, July). Motivational andself-regulated learning components of classroom academic performance.Journal of Educational Psychology, 82(1), 33-4 . Theresearch sample will be selected from among the students enrolled inintroductory psychology classes at a participating university. ERIC Document ED 4 124. The experience of the feeling ofapprehension and anxiety is one of the criteria for establishing thepresence of anxiety (Catanzaro. 1993). Sharmaand Sud (199 ) found that female students experience higher levels of testanxiety than do males irrespective of cultural background. Intentions, in turn, predict actual behavior.Test Anxiety Test anxiety is a widely reported and investigated phenomenon across abroad spectrum of educational settings (Griffin & Griffin, 1998). e. Self-involvement, intention certainty andattitude-intention consistency. New York:Consulting Psychologists Press. Acute stress disorder; 3. Self-concept does not just reflect on-going behavior but insteadmediates and regulates this behavior. D. J. The studyinvolved students from four Asian cultures. Ott, L. (199 ).Adolescent contraceptive behavior: An assessment of decision processes.Journal of Pediatrics, 116, 463-471. 119).The interactionist model builds on the organismic model to posit thatsocial factors "enter not simply before and after but interactively duringthe experience of emotion" (Hochschild, 199 , p. In this latter context, when in the presence of theconditioning stimulus, a being will display behavior that may beinterpreted as evidence of the presence of anxiety. The addition of perceivedcontrol was designed to expand the model to incorporate behaviors not fullyunder volitional control (Madden, et al., 1992). Albany, New York: State University ofNew York Press, pp. 9 -91). 119). Because of this analytical emphasis in leastsquares regression analysis, both the independent and the dependentvariables must be measured on an interval scale. The Test Anxiety Inventory has beensubjected to at least 19 validity and reliability studies based on a searchof Psychological Abstracts. General, social, andacademic self-concepts of gifted adolescents. Another empirical toolthat may be used in the measurement of the criteria required for adiagnosis of the anxiety disorder agoraphobia without a history of panicattacks is the Negative Outcome Questionnaire (Weisz, Sweeney, Proffitt, &Carr, 1993).Behavioral Intentions The Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) proposes that attitudes andsubjective norms combine to determine behavioral intentions, which in turncause volitional behaviors. Some critics contendthat the effects of external variables and prior behaviors are not alwaysfully mediated by the attitudinal and normative components of the model(Granberg & Holmberg, 199 ). introduction History of the problem Fear of failure, an absence of motivation, poor self-concept, andrelated stress-producing factors long have been associated with thedevelopment of anxieties and stresses that manifest themselves in behaviorssuch as academic procrastination that, in turn, lead to poor academicperformance (Senecal, 1995). J. The acceptability of a specific correlation coefficient as adescriptor of a relationship depends, to a great extent, on the pastexperience and practice within a specific field of investigation; however,in most social science investigations, a correlation minimum coefficient of .7 often is required before the descriptor is considered to beacceptable. Control-related beliefs and self-reported depressive symptoms in late childhood.Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 1 2(3), 411-418. (199 ). The major differencebetween these models is the significance accorded in them to socialinfluence. The role of external variables, especially prior behavior, continuesto be an issue of debate with respect to the TRA. (199 , March). R., Sweeney, L., Proffitt, V., & Carr, T. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 81,1255-1266. Wessel and Mersch (1994) reported positive results from theapplication of cognitive behavioral group therapy in the treatment ofstudent subjects experiencing test anxiety. (199 ). Test anxiety, however, is a manifestation of the overall problemthat tends to affect both groups of students (Herman, 199 ). Path analysisexamining relationships among antecedents of anxiety, multidimensionalstate anxiety, and triathlon performance. The subject is markedly distressed about the phobia. (1993). Anxiety disorder not otherwise specified. 9). Student Diaries 9 . (1991). Journal of Personality and Clinical Studies,9(1-2), 39-46. Morris, M. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 2 , 173-198. According to the interactionist model, socialfactors help to shape feeling as feeling is being experienced by a person.As emotions are conceived in the interactionist model, social forcesprovide shape to biological sensations, thereby creating "a strip ofexperience with a name, a history, a meaning, and a consequence of acertain sort" (Hochschild, 199 , p. The research hypothesis and the null version of thehypothesis will be as follows: Research Hypothesis: The frequency with which a subjectparticipates in academic procrastination will vary positively will thelevel of the subject's perceived fear of failure as reflected by the levelof test anxiety experienced by the subject. Journal of Family Practice, 41(5), 457-464. The social constructionist models accords the greatest level ofimportance to social influence, followed in order by the interactionistmodel and the organismic. Anxiety, Stress, and Coping:An International Journal, 7(2), 149-16 . M., & Zanna, M. Exceptional Children,62(5), 389-397. B., & Hocevar, D. Recent applications of the TRA have been diverse (Olson & Zanna,1993). To establish the presence of anxiety, a subject must not beable to attribute the feelings of apprehension or anxiousness to anyspecific causal factor. 1-9. Thus, theanticipation is that the proposed research would confirm that a positiverelationship exists between test anxiety levels and the frequency ofacademic procrastination behavior. Journal of Abnormal Psychology,1 2(2), 327-33 . Apprehensionand anxiousness cannot be experienced by a subject, if the subject isincapable of feeling emotion. The disturbance may not be attributed directly to thephysiological effects of a substance. If the null form of an hypothesis is rejected,then, by inference, the hypothesis may be accepted; and, conversely, if thenull form of an hypothesis cannot be rejected, then, by inference, thehypothesis may be rejected. W., & Peng, K. Sarason, I. Subjects assigned to the control group received no training instrategies for dealing with their test anxiety. (1993). E., Kegeles, S. 4 4). (1993). The TRA model holds that a person's intention to engage in aparticular form of overt behavior is the best single predictor of suchactions, and that such behavioral intentions are a function of threevariables: (1) attitudes toward the action, (2) perceptions of relevantnormative pressure, and (3) personal control. (199 ). 2. Madden, T. The findings of theexperiment were that significant reductions in test anxiety scores occurredamong the subjects assigned to the experimental group, while such testanxiety score reductions were not matched by subjects assigned to thecontrol group when the Test Anxiety Scale was administered one-monthsubsequent to the completion of the experiment. A subject must be capable of feeling emotion. The conclusion of the studywas that the psychometric properties of the instrument were more thanadequate for assessing test anxiety as a global construct (Araki, Iwawaki,& Spielberger, 1992). Contemporary Hypnosis, 11(1), 14-18. Recommendations Based on the projected findings and conclusion, one recommendationwould be for the conduct of research to identify strategies that would bemost effective in reducing fear of failure and, in turn, levels of testanxiety. Kendzierski, D. Therefore, the feared outcomes of anevents often provide the best understanding of excessive anxiety (AmericanPsychiatric Association, 1994). An appropriate computerprogram will be used to generate a series of random numbers until 6 students have been selected as subjects for the research sample. Beck, L., & Ajzen, I. Attitude-social supportinteractions: Contingent consistency effects in the prediction ofadolescent smoking, drinking, and drug use. Brophy, J. The required conditions fordiagnosis, specific to each of the recognized anxiety disorders, are asfollows (American Psychiatric Association, 1994): 1. R., Zanna, M. Performance oncreativity measures with examination-taking instructions intended to inducehigh or low levels of test anxiety. D., Mitchell, P., Stanford, J. Journal of Community and Applied Psychology, 1, 1 5-116. W. Literature Review & Hypothesis Literature ReviewSelf-Concept Within the context of social identity theory, self-concept reflects "acollection of self-images which vary in terms of the length of theirestablishment, complexity and richness of content" (Abrams & Hogg, 1994, p.3). The presence of incapacitating panic-like symptoms orlimited symptom attacks associated with a place from which escape might beextremely embarrassing. (Translated into English by the AmericanPsychological Association). Jensen (1991) challenged Feigel's (1991) conclusions, but not on thegrounds stated above to the effect that a second sitting of the ScholasticAptitude Test should produce higher scores whether or not a subject's testanxiety was moderated between the initial and subsequent sitting for theexamination. A broader populationis required to assure that the findings of such a study would begeneralizable to the broad population of students. Substance-induced anxiety disorder; and 6. el-Zahhar and Hocevar (1991) reported, however, that the genderdifferences in relation to test anxiety were more pronounced in both Braziland Egypt than in the United States. P., d'Avernas, J. Hooker and Kaus (1992) using the concept of "possible selves" andfound future-self perceptions of "hoped for" and "feared" conditions weremore influential upon health behavior than agreement with general healthvalues (p. Problem drinking: A problem for the theory ofreasoned action? The avoidance, fear, or anxious anticipation ofencountering the phobic stimulus interferes significantly with a subject'sdaily routine, occupational functioning, or social life; or d. 2. Van Boxtel, H. Y., & Baumgartner, J. The Test Anxiety Inventory has been subjected to at least 19 validityand reliability studies based on a search of Psychological Abstracts. The antecedents of anxietyare as follows: 1. (199 ), in a field experimentinvolving homework projects for students, found that when the behaviorrequired substantial effort, intentions completely mediated the effects ofattitudes on behavior. budget A relatively modest budget would be required to conduct the proposedstudy. Within the context of cognitive psychology,the self-awareness/social identity relationship is described in "terms ofcontrol theory, in which negative feedback loops operate to enableindividuals to match their behaviour to particular standards" (Abrams,1994, pp. The criterion for the reject of the nullhypothesis in the proposed study will be a probability level of p <. (1991, June). Based on this anticipated finding, theconclusion that would be drawn would be that problems with academicprocrastination could be minimized through effective management of anxiety. G.(1995, November). In almost all cases, the correlation coefficientwill be more than . (199 ). Ellis, A. Casti, J. Thus, as opposed to askingstudents to report how anxious they felt on a provided scale of perceivedanxiety, an objective measurement instrument would question subjects aboutthe presence of specific behavioral actions. (1992). Posttraumatic stress disorder; 2. The effect of beta blockade on stress-induced cognitive dysfunction in adolescents: Editorial. The occurrence of the panic attacks is not betteraccounted for by another mental disorder. 5. Rather, Jensen (1991) challenged Feigel's (1991) findings ondifferent methodological grounds. d. Although some researchers comparing the predictive powers of the TRAand the TPB have concluded that the older theory performs just as well asthe newer one (Fishbein & Stasson, 199 ), most comparisons of the twomodels have found a predictive advantage for the TPB (Beck & Ajzen, 1991;Madden, et al., 1992, pp. Weisz, J. Total $ 175. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 2 , 27-45. Required conditions for the diagnosis of anxiety also are enumeratedby the American Psychiatric Association (1994) for other anxiety disorders. Test anxiety instudents with learning disabilities and behavior. Stanton (1994) did not measure academic performance. This finding was importantbecause of the tendency to blame poor mathematical performance by femalestudents on either a fear of mathematics or on a poor aptitude for thesubject. Lane, A. Hertfordshire, England: Harvester Wheatsheaf, pp. Richard, R., & Van Der Pligt, J. 12 ). In a review ofrelevant studies, Ajzen (1991) concluded that the evidence supports therevised model and that adding further variables to the model (such as moralobligation or past behavior) would improve its predictive power onlyslightly. The results supported the internalconsistency, test-retest stability, concurrent validity, and predictivevalidity. Self-concept hasmotivational consequences, and adjusts in response to challenges from aperson's environment. The assumption is that all human resource time required to completethe proposed study would be performed by this researcher whose time wouldnot be billed. Three predominant modelsof emotion are present in the literature-the organismic, the interactional,and the social constructionist (Hochschild, 199 ). Test anxiety inventory. Strader, M. Feeling, according to the social constructionist model of emotions,"is entirely constituted by social influences" (Hochschild, 199 , p. Obsessive-compulsive disorder: a. The Test Anxiety Scale is a widely used instrument in a variety ofeducational settings. M. The instrument is both easily administered andeasily scored. (1991). (1996, March). Nederhof, A. Reductions inperceived fear of failure will be accomplished through reductions in thelevels of test anxiety. An r of .25 (a simple coefficient of correlation isrepresented by the symbol r, while a multiple coefficient of correlation isrepresented by the symbol R) would represent a relatively weakrelationship, while an r of .85 would represent a relatively strongrelationship. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 22, 358-385. Social phobia: a. Therequired conditions for the "with agoraphobia" case are as stated in "a"through "d" above and the conditions for Agoraphobia without a history ofpanic disorder stated in the following section. The instrument may beadministered either individually or to a group. The effect of beta blockade on stress-induced cognitive dysfunction in adolescents. Higher expectations of role conflict among female high schoolstudents frequently is offered as one explanation for this phenomenon. Putting off untiltomorrow what is better done today: Academic procrastination as a functionof motivation toward college work. Campbell, J. While therewas no feasible option to this procedure, self-reporting always isaccompanied by threats to reliability. Vasey (1996) found that an effective means of minimizing test anxietywas to shift the attention of students away from threatening stimuli.Swanson and Howell (1996) found a positive relationship between testanxiety and cognitive interference and a negative relationship between testanxiety and good study habits. Students developed a series of test questions, used these questionsto quiz each other prior to unit examinations, and provided correctivefeedback to the questions. Additionally, Jensen (1991)contended that the use of a chemical substance as a therapy for testanxiety should not be used in any event because such action might encouragethe use of drugs by subjects to deal with other situational problems. In Kemper, T. Examination stress andtest anxiety: A cross-cultural perspective. The role of desires, self-predictions, and perceived control in the prediction of training sessionattendance. Null Hypothesis: The frequency of occurrence of academicprocrastination by a subject will not vary in relation to changes in thelevel of test anxiety experienced by the subject. The social constructionist model of emotions posits that biologicalsensations have no causative role in the creation of emotions (Hochschild,199 ). Journal of Family Practice, 32(4), 391-396. Y. Griffin and Griffin (1998) examined the use of reciprocal peertutoring (RPT) as an intervention therapy to reduce levels of test anxiety. Theresults supported the internal consistency, test-retest stability,concurrent validity, and predictive validity. G. Olson, J. The conclusions of the study were that (1) thefactorial structure of the instrument is valid and (2) the instrument isappropriate for the cross-cultural measurement of test anxiety (Bajdekova &Sarason, 1992). In this study, the subjects were divided intoexperimental and control groups. Panic disorder is further distinguished as "withoutagoraphobia" or "with agoraphobia." The required conditions for the"without agoraphobia" case are as stated in "a" through "d" above. (1994, June). If a subject cannot react on an objective level to afeeling of emotion, the subject is incapable of fulfilling one of thecriteria-objective behavioral, physiologic, and cognitive responses-forestablishing the presence of anxiety (Eysenck, Mogg, May, Richards, &Mathews, 1991, pp. Theinstrument may be administered either individually or to a group.Administration time ranges from five- to-1 minutes. Procedures The Test Anxiety Inventory will be administered to the members of theresearch sample at the beginning of the proposed investigation. Williams, J. Katerndahl, D. references Abrams, D. Correlation coefficients range from . (1994). Reasinger and Brownlow (1996), however,found that a complete absence of extrinsic motivation can contribute tostudent procrastination. Social identity theory: Constructive and critical advances.Hertfordshire, England: Harvester Wheatsheaf, pp. (199 , July-December). Stanton, H. A., & Johnsen, T. , which isan indication of no correlation whatever, to 1. A student who is intrinsically motivated participates in a learningactivity "for its own sake, for the enjoyment it provides, the learning itpermits, or the feelings of accomplishment it evokes" (Lumsden, 1994, p.2). 3. Hooker, K., & Kaus, C. (1992). A total of 6 students will be selected for the research sample.Student names obtained from class rosters will be entered into a computerand assigned a three-digit number. Early developmentalhistory and pediatric posttraumatic stress disorder. Cultural differences related to theperceived importance of the consequences associated with superiorperformance in school in both Brazil and Egypt, as opposed to the UnitedStates, were cited as explanations for the variations. There exists a wide variety of empirical referent tools by which thecriteria for the assessment of anxiety disorders may be measured. S. New York:William Morrow and Company, Inc. L. The consequences of anxiety are many and varied (American PsychiatricAssociation, 1994; Famularo & Fenton, 1994; Katerndahl, 1991). This conclusionis consistent with the argument that students may experience test anxietybecause of an awareness that they are not prepared to perform the tasksthat will be required of them on a test. Journal of Aging and Health, 4, 39 -411. It isthe expected outcomes and more particularly their pattern of associationswith stimuli which theoretically distinguish individuals with normal andpathological levels of anxiety. Simple regression analysis involves the analysis of the relationshipbetween one dependent variable and one explanatory, or independent,variable. Journal of Research andDevelopment in Education, 23(3), 18 -185. Self-regulation and academicprocrastination. Specific phobia: a. Social PsychologyQuarterly, 52, 266-279. Hochschild, A. Attitudes and attitude change.Annual Review of Psychology, 44, 117-154. (1991). Advances in testanxiety research. Correlation coefficients establish both the strength ofrelationships between variables and the nature of such relationships-positive or negative. Wessel, I., & Mersch, P. L., Williams, M. The TRA is used to predictbehavior in many contexts, and the model frequently serves as the standardto which new ideas and theories involving attitude and subjective norms arecompared (Olson & Zanna, 1993). V. In Abrams, D.,& Hogg, M. Many different approaches to help people deal with test anxiety havebeen put forward over the years (Griffin & Griffin, 1998). 5. P., DeCourville, N. Test-retestreliability were found to vary from .7 when the retest interval was one-week to .8 when the retest interval was one-year. Anxiety and the processing of emotionallythreatening stimuli: Distinctive patterns of selective attention among high- and low-test-anxious children. el-Zahhar, N. An equally rational argumentmay be made that the cause of test anxiety in such instances is a knowledgeon the part of subjects that they do not possess the required level ofcompetency to perform in a satisfactory manner the tasks on which they areto be tested. R. J., Scholder-Ellen, P., & Ajzen, I. Anxiety maybe a contributing factor in the development of clinical depression (Weisz,Sweeney, Proffitt, & Carr, 1993). Senecal, C. Journal of Social Psychology, 135(5), 6 7-619. ERICDigest. How do group members regulate their behaviour? Psychology in the Schools, 33(2),159-162. Griffin, M. For these reasons, it is proposed to used this instrumentto measure test anxiety in the proposed research study. Thus, while test anxiety is more prevalentamong female high school students, male high school students experiencemore severe detrimental academic performance outcomes associated with thephenomenon of test anxiety when it does occur to them. M., & Griffin, B. conclusion, implications, & recommendations Conclusion Assuming that the proposed research were actually to be performed, theanticipation is that the null hypothesis would be rejected and, byinference, the research hypothesis would be accepted. A second recommendation would be to seek ways to eliminatecompetition among students in school so that a greater emphasis could beplaced on learning as opposed to earning the highest score on examinations. R. Ajzen, I. One problem that exists in relation tothe study conducted by Lens and Decruyenaere (1991) is that the data usedin the analyses were all derived from subject self-reporting. Thus, higher levels oftest anxiety will be associated with a higher frequency of occurrence ofacademic procrastination, while lower levels of test anxiety will beassociated with a lower frequency of occurrence of academicprocrastination. (1992). Similarly, Nederhof (1989) found that the certaintyof subjects' intentions moderated the intention-behavior relation, suchthat more certain intentions were better predictors of behavior.Kendzierski (199 ) distinguished decision making from decisionimplementation in finding that an intention to exercise physically was morelikely to be implemented when individuals had engaged in planning than whenthey had not planned. There are four general criteria that establish the existence ofanxiety (American Psychiatric Association, 1994). C. Boston: PWS-Kent Publishing Company. The TRA treats attitudes and subjective norms as independentpredictors of intentions. Based on this anticipated finding, theconclusion that would be drawn would be that problems with academicprocrastination could be minimized through effective management of anxiety. The avoidance, fear, or anxious anticipation ofencountering the phobic stimulus interferes significantly with a subject'sdaily routine, occupational functioning, or social life; or d. The organismic model posits that "social influences enter in only toelicit feeling, and to regulate expression" (Hochschild, 199 , p. An important intrapersonal function performed byself-concept is the regulation of affect-feeling, mood, emotion, andtemperament. 119). This chronic feelingof fear may be mild in intensity or the feeling fear may be overwhelmingfor the being. As anexample, it may be that all feared outcomes are represented as a singleentity ("something bad"). Spielberger, C. (1996, October). The TRA has been used successfully to predict intentions orbehaviors associated with smoking, seat belt use (Stasson & Fishbein,199 ), applying for a nursing program (Strader & Katz, 199 ), andperforming testicular self-examinations (Steffen, 199 ). American Psychiatric Association. The Fear Survey Schedule is one empirical tool that may be used tomeasure the criteria required for a diagnosis of the anxiety disorderagoraphobia without a history of panic attacks. No physical or medical reason is present to explain theoccurrence of the panic attacks. (199 ). Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University Press. R. (1989). (1994). (1991). Intention and expectation measures as predictorsof academic performance. Educational level differences on testanxiety within Indian and US cultures. and Swedish voters. The conclusion drawn fromthese findings was that a major causal factor involved in the gender-related differences in test anxiety among students was a greater roleexpectation conflict among females than among males. The subject is markedly distressed about the phobia. Gender differences inmathematics performance. The strength of regression analysis, as opposed to correlationanalysis, is that regression coefficients permit the projection ofmovements in one variable based on movement in another variable or in a setof other variables. Limitations One limitation of the proposed study as described in this paper is therestrictiveness of the research sample to selection from one set ofbeginning psychology classes in a single university. Predicting dishonest actions using thetheory of planned behavior. G. Two widely used instruments designed to measure levels of test anxietyare the Test Anxiety Inventory (Spielberger, 1989) and the Test AnxietyScale (Sarason, 199 ). (1994). Washington: United States EducationalResources Information Center, 28pp. 144-15 ). 117-142. Washington: United States EducationalResources Information Center, 8pp. Stasson, M., & Fishbein, M. Creativity Research Journal, 3(4), 265-28 . ClinicalPediatrics, 3 (7), 446-448. The conditions required for a diagnosis of anxiety vary in relation tothe specific anxiety disorder involved. One such study involved a group of 977university students in Japan. Washington: United States Educational ResourcesInformation Center, 7pp. Feigel (1991) assumed that an indication of cognitivedysfunction on the basis of the results obtained from the administration ofthis instrument could be equated with the existence of the presence of acognitive dysfunction when taking examinations, i.e., test anxiety. Feigel(1991), thus, used this instrument as a screening device to select studentsfor inclusion in his research sample. 3. Jensen (1991) contended that Feigel's(1991) assumption that a measure of general cognitive dysfunction could beequated with the existence of test anxiety in a subject was faulty, andthus, the use of the measure of general cognitive dysfunction as ascreening instrument to identify students who had experienced test anxietyproduced a faulty research sample that, in turn, compromised both thefindings and the conclusions of the study. Thus, theinteractionist model recognizes several "points of social entry"(Hochschild, 199 , p. (1991, September). Men's motivation to perform the testicle self-exam: Effects of prior knowledge and an educational brochure. Williams, J. (1991, June). In least-squares regression analysis, the emphasis is placed on ananalysis of the joint interaction of the variations in dependent andindependent variables. Lumsden, L. The purpose of the proposed study will be to investigate the effectson academic procrastination of reductions in perceived fear of failure.Reductions in perceived fear of failure will be accomplished throughreductions in the levels of test anxiety. Washington: American PsychiatricAssociation. research design Subjects A population of first-year college students will be sampled. Understanding therelationships among attitudes, group norms, and behavior using behavioralcommitment: A structural equation analysis of marijuana use. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 19, 4 5-415. It also has been argued that behavioralexpectations are better predictors of behavior than are behavioralintentions, because expectations take into account the probability ofsuccessful completion of the action. The purpose of this diary will be todetermine the frequency of academic procrastination of the subjects in theresearch sample Data Analysis The frequency of occurrence of academic procrastination by a subjectwill constitute the dependent variable in the testing of the hypothesis,while the test anxiety score for the subject will constitute theindependent variable in the testing of the hypothesis. Archives of Pediatricand Adolescent Medicine, 148, 1 32-1 38. Bagozzi and Yi (1989) found that when intentions were well formed,intentions completely mediated the effects of attitudes on behavior aspredicted by the TRA. Bagozzi, et al. Panic disorder: a. Student motivation to learn. R., & De Groot, E. Feigel, Harris C. Assuming that the proposed research were actually to be performed, theanticipation is that the null hypothesis would be rejected and, byinference, the research hypothesis would be accepted. Araki, N., Iwawaki, S., & Spielberger. Zeitschrift furPadagogische Psychologie, 5(2), 111-119. E., & Webbelsman, C. At another level anxietyis defined as a chronic feeling of fear by a being. Jensen, V. di Maria, F., & di Nuovo, S. Most of theseapproaches are based on some form of cognitive strategy that students areexpected to adopt and put into action. Mallios, W. Abrams, D., & Hogg, M. As has been stated, thecorrelation coefficient represents the strength of a relationship betweenvariables. F., & Cattarello, A. Although the sample consisted of undergraduatestudents, Madden, et al. Swanson, S., & Howell, C. A. 9199 , Spring). Feigel's (1991) experiment involved the administering of 4 mg ofpropranolol (a beta-blocker) one-hour prior to a student's sitting againfor the Scholastic Aptitude Test. (1991). W., and Morgan, M. Health behaviors of women, more than men, were influencedby outcome expectancies of "feared" conditions (Hooker & Kaus, 1992, p.4 3). Thepurpose of this administration of the instrument will be to developbaseline data on the levels of test anxiety experienced by the members ofthe research sample. Self-awareness theory is concernedwith the ways through which individuals control and direct their behavior.Within a sociological context, the relationship between self-awareness andsocial identity is perceived as a realization by an individual ofvariations between their own self-image and the ideal self-image associatedwith a salient reference group, and a response by an individual to such arealization (Abrams, 1994). An introduction to statistical methods and dataanalysis. Studies of women inPennsylvania attending a contraceptive health clinic and sexually activeDutch adolescents, ages 15-19, also found positive attitudes to beassociated with condom use (Richard & Van Der Pligt, 1991). P., & Yi. The TPB adds perceived behavioral control (a concept similar to self-efficacy) as a third predictor of intentions, independent from attitudesand subjective norms, the predictors in the TRA. . With respect to gender differences in mathematical performance, Felsonand Trudeau (1991) concluded that lower academic performance by femalestudents was more strongly associated with high-levels of test anxiety thanwith high-levels of fear of mathematics. British Journal of Social Psychology, 28,123-133. Journal of Personality and ClinicalStudies, 7(2), 131-136. (1992). Amongthat group of students known to be highly anxious, however, this findingindicates that an exposure to additional stress will adversely affect malesubjects more so than female subjects will be affected in a similarsituation. A further assumption is that computer time would beprovided at no charge by the participating university. P. Bajdekova, R., & Sarason, I. P., Yi. Personality and Individual Differences, 11(5), 525-53 . Reversing the causal relationship, Williams (1991) found that academicperformance was not a function of test anxiety, but rather that testanxiety was an outcome of academic performance. Fear of failure as a distinctivepersonality trait measure of test anxiety. Social identity theory: Constructiveand critical advances. The Test Anxiety Scale is a 37-item instrument that measuresindividual differences in test-taking anxiety. Theinteractionist model occupies a middle ground on this continuum with arecognition of both biological and social factors as causes of emotions,and an assumption that the biological and social factors interact with oneanother.Anxiety Anxiety is defined within the context of feelings experienced by aperson. In one way,however, correlation analysis goes beyond regression analysis by providinga single number that summarizes and expresses the strength the relationshipbetween two variables. New York: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Self-concept frequently is shaped by a person's belief system(Morris & Peng, 1995). I. Williams(1996) found that higher levels of test anxiety were associated with lowerlevels of academic performance. 4. Lens and Decruyenaere (1991) reported that students characterized byvarying levels of test anxiety could be identified through the use ofinstrumentation firmly rooted in cognitive theories of motivation and locusof control orientation. Hagtvet, K. According to the model,one's attitudes toward engaging in a specific activity, such as working tomaintain abortion rights, are positively correlated with intentions toengage in this behavior. Gordon (1989) found, as an example,that expectations were better predictors of students' academic performancesthan were intentions. The appropriate age rangefor the instrument is junior high school to adult. Catanzaro, S. Famularo, R., & Fenton, T. Psychology and DevelopingSocieties, 2(2), 183-2 1. The results of the experiment foundthat only mathematical performance was adversely affected within theexperimental group in comparison with the performance of control group.Hagtvet (1991) also found that mathematical performance was affected bytest anxiety to a greater extent than test anxiety affected performance inother academic areas. Regression analysis is usedas an inferential tool in hypothesis testing to provide the data by whichresearchers may either reject or not reject the null forms of thehypotheses being tested. Gender-related worry and emotionalitytest anxiety for high-achieving students. D. Feigel (1991) reported on an experimental study in which a chemicalsubstance was administered as a therapy for students experiencing highlevels of test anxiety. (199 ). B. (4th ed.). Rational-emotive group therapy applied tosense of inferiority among university students. All researchers agree,however, that a strong relationship exists between test anxiety andacademic performance, regardless of the causal direction of therelationship, or whether or not such a causal relationship exists. A. di Maria and di Nuovo (199 ) found that the adverse effects of testanxiety on academic performance generally was greater among male studentsthan among female students. Self-hypnosis: One path to reduced testanxiety. The intention-behaviorrelationship among U.S. Such behavior mayinclude urination, defecation, attempting to flee, and other actions (Lane,Terry, & Karageorghis, 1995). Test anxiety: Theory, research, andapplications. As self-concept is closely associated with the theory of socialidentity, a question arises as to the potential for self-awareness toaffect social identity (Abrams, 1994). (Eds.). Sud (1993) investigated the use of both Systematic RationalRestructuring and Cognitive Modeling as short-term cognitive therapies tohelp students overcome test anxiety. (1989). The conclusion of the study was that the psychometric propertiesof the instrument were more than adequate for assessing test anxiety as aglobal construct (Araki, Iwawaki, & Spielberger, 1992). Inaddition to describing an individual's beliefs about health threats andbehaviors, the TRA includes the components of subjective social norms aboutthose health behaviors, thus describing a more complete socioculturalcontext for the behaviors (Campbell, et al., 1995). Culture and cause: American andChinese attributions for social and physical events. Sud, A. Statistically significant findings were foundto be inconsistent across the experiments. An introduction to the social identityapproach. It also has beenpointed out that the more causal variables that are included in aregression equation to be used in causal analysis, the simpler one'sassumptions must be concerning the manner in which the variables arecombined in their effect on the dependent variable in the equation. Statement of the Problem Academic procrastination, as a motivational problem deriving from afear of failure and related psychological factors, is a problem that mustbe addressed effectively by both the psychological and educationalcommunities those students affected are to become productive academically.Senecal (1995) contended that students with intrinsic reasons for studyingprocrastinate less than do students with less autonomous reasons for fullacademic participation, such as external regulation or rewards. The determination that studentsexperienced stress-induced cognitive dysfunction was made on the basis ofthe administration of an instrument that was designed to measure cognitivedysfunction. Withrespect to agoraphobia, information processing models of anxiety emphasizethe importance not only of representations of feared stimuli but also ofrepresentations of expected outcomes associated with those stimuli. Steffen, V. Vasey, M. A minimum of one month of persistent: (1) Concern about having another panic attack; (2) Worry about the potential implications orconsequences of the panic attacks; or (3) A significant behavioral change related to thepanic attacks. 298). Journal ofApplied Social Psychology, 19, 1268-1291. For accuracy and power, regression analysis depends upon a linear andadditive relationship between independent and dependent variables (Mallios,1994). H.,& Manske, S. Sud, A. 4. Felson, R. Each approach, however,acknowledges the interactions of thoughts, feelings, and actions, andcombine a variety of cognitive, emotive, and behavioral techniques intherapy. Anxiety also may be a secondary drive involving a acquiredavoidance response. Thus, a person will engage in a specific behavior if he or she hasinformation and/or beliefs that the behavior will produce a specific,desirable outcome, and has appropriate resources as well as the opportunityto perform the behavior. Rubenzer (199 ) contended that school-relatedstress is the most prevalent untreated cause of academic failure. Social Psychology Quarterly,53, 44-54. 298). Diagnostic and statisticalmanual of mental disorders. The presence of a marked and persistent fear of socialor performance situations in which embarrassment may occur; or b. The presence of recurrent obsessions or compulsionsthat: (1) Are severe enough to be time consuming-in excessof one-hour per day; or (2) Cause the subject marked distress or significantimpairment; and b. An invariant and immediate anxiety response to exposureto a specific social or performance situation; and c. M. This conclusion supports that drawn by Williams (1991). K. Williams (1991) concluded thathigh-achieving students held few cognitive concerns about testing, whilelow-achieving students were characterized by high-levels of test anxiety.Van Boxtel and Monks (1992) also concluded that test anxiety is affected byacademic competency to a greater extent that the reverse relationship istrue. International Journal of Group Psychotherapy, 42(1), 63-8 . The researchers concluded thatRPT "appears to have, at best, inconsistent effects on achievement, testanxiety, and academic self-efficacy" (Griffin & Griffin, 1998, p. These other anxiety disorders are (American Psychiatric Association,1994): 1. By this causalattribution, Williams (1991) meant that poor academic performance causedstudents to be anxious about future tests. At one level, anxiety is defined as a feeling of mingled dread andapprehension about a being's future in the absence of an attribution ofspecific cause for such dread and apprehension. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 23, 298-311. 12 ). A stronger studywould result of such data could be developed independently of theparticipating students. An investigation of theeffects of reciprocal peer tutoring on achievement, self-efficacy, and testanxiety. Effects of cognitive ability and affect on school mathematicsperformance and feelings of difficulty. Regression analysis is used as a descriptive tool in three types ofsituations: to develop a self-weighting estimating equation by which topredict values for a dependent variable; to control for confoundingvariables so as to better evaluate the contribution of other variables; andto test explicit causal theories (Ott, 1993). Efklides, A., Papadaki, M., Papantoniou, G., & Kiosseoglou, G. Trait anxiety andarousability: Egypt, Brazil, and the United States. The "mechanism" was perceived behavioral control.There is research support for this desired-outcome hypothesis among olderpeople. Journal ofApplied Social Psychology, 2 , 681-7 2. Fear offailure produces stress that in turn is manifested as anxiety that leads toprocrastinating behavior by students (Griffin & Griffin, 1998). It is held that before a regression equation can be used for causalanalysis, a theoretical basis for a causal relationship between thevariables concerned must be established (Casti, 1993). These subjects participated inan intervention wherein they received counseling on how to perceive andevaluate academic testing and performance. Systematic Rational Restructuringattempts to alter the way a subject perceives a situation, while CognitiveModeling attempts to provide a subject with a plan of behavior to befollowed in a specific circumstance. Statistical modeling: Applications incontemporary issues. The anticipation is that approximately32 names will be entered into the computer. Construction andvalidation of a Japanese adaptation of the Test Anxiety Inventory. The study found that test anxiety inall three cultures was higher among female students than among malestudents. Lumsden (1994)also suggested that extrinsic rewards hold the potential to decreasestudents' intrinsic motivation. Generalized anxiety disorder; 4. Factors affecting condom useamong adolescents. Stanton (1994) conducted an experiment in which students were dividedamong experimental and control groups for the purpose of testing a proposedtherapy for test anxiety. (1989). W., Mogg, K., May, J., Richards, A., & Mathews, A. Locus of control orientation-internal or external-for subjects was determined through the administration of a locus ofcontrol scale developed by Rotter. The presence of incapacitating panic-like symptoms orlimited symptom attacks associated with a place from which escape might bedifficult; or b. Feigel's (1991) subjects were 32 high schoolseniors who had already taken the Scholastic Aptitude Test, and who hadalready been determined to experience stress-induced cognitive dysfunctionwhen taking examinations. Araki, Iwawaki, and Spielberger (1992) subjected the Test AnxietyInventory to a cross-cultural evaluation. Correlation analysis is quite similar to regression analysis in thatboth procedures are based upon least squares calculations. Attempting to test this model, a study of 325 sexually activeadolescents in San Francisco, ages 14-19, found that positive attitudestoward condoms were associated with intention to use the protective devices(Adler, et al., 199 ). Anxiety,Stress, and Coping, 5(3), 217-224. One hypothesis, as follows, will be tested: The frequency with which asubject participates in academic procrastination will vary positively willthe level of the subject's perceived fear of failure as reflected by thelevel of test anxiety experienced by the subject. 2). Therefore, the problem of test anxietymust be solved as an antecedent to solving the problem of academicprocrastination (Efklides, Papadaki, Papantoniou, & Kiosseoglou, 1997). The organismic model and the social constructionist model, therefore,are the polar opposites on the continuum of the theory of emotions. Pintrich and de Groot (199 ) found that test anxiety was one of thebest predictors of academic performance among students, with higher levelsof test anxiety were associated with lower levels of academic performance.Smith, Michael, and Hocevar (199 ) examined the effects of test anxiety onthe academic performance of students in three performance contexts-verbal,figural, and mathematical. el-Zahhar and Hocevar (1991) examined test anxiety among students inBrazil, Egypt, and the United States. A. The Feigel (1991) experiment,however, appears to have been methodologically flawed, because one wouldanticipate that a student would perform at a higher level at a secondsitting of the Scholastic Aptitude Test than on the first sitting,regardless of any action taken to moderate a subject's test anxiety. A comparison ofthe theory of planned behavior and the theory of reasoned action.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 18, 3-9.
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