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DOING BUSINESS IN AUSTRALIA.
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Examines historical, political & economic contexts, advantages & disadvantages of locating multinational company there.... More...
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Paper Abstract:
Examines historical, political & economic contexts, advantages & disadvantages of locating multinational company there.
Paper Introduction:
BUSINESS ENVIRONMENT: ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF DOING BUSINESS IN AUSTRALIA
Introduction
This research reviews the advantages and disadvantages of doing business in Australia for a multinational company. The findings of this research are presented in relations to (1) historical notes relevant to Australia, (2) the relevant demographics of Australia, (3) Australia’s political characteristics, (4) economic aspects of doing business in Australia, (5) Australia’s work environment, and (6) implications for multinational companies of the foregoing information.
Historical Notes
Although British settlement in Australia began in the lat
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Business Environment: Advantages & Disadvantages of Doing Business in Australia Introduction This research reviews the advantages and disadvantages of doingbusiness in Australia for a multinational company. Bad Aboriginal Art: Tradition, Media, and Technological Horizons. Actions involving land are intrinsic to the transition to modernsociety by the aboriginal peoples of Australia. Niblett, "The Balance of Trade," Management Today (December1995): 76. Johnstone, "Getting Runs on the Board," Far Eastern EconomicReview 155 (1992 April 9): 4 . If the primary motivation or even an importantmotivation of an American corporation in considering Australia as alocation for business operations is to escape the need for diversitymanagement that characterizes doing business in the United States, however,such a corporation should rethink its proposed strategy, as effectivediversity management increasingly will be required of companies doingbusiness in Australia. Fisher, "Financial Deregulation and theDynamics of Money, Prices, and Output in New Zealand and Australia,"Journal of Money, Credit, and Banking 25 (1993 May): 273. While efforts atincreased regional economic integration continues, the member countries ofGATT remain unable to settle their differences. [xlv]Ibid. All ministers of state (membersof the Cabinet) also are members of the Executive Council.[xvi] In practice, the House of Representatives is the government, althoughthe Senate must concur with legislation and the Monarch, as represented bythe Governor General, must assent before legislation may become law. Daughters of the Dreaming. Pilger, "End of the Keating Myth," New Statesman & Society,393 (8 March 1996), 14. Bell and J. The caveat is that a multinational company doing business inAustralia will attain greater success if the company attempts to become agood Australian company, as opposed to an essentially American company orBritish company looking out primarily for American or British interestswhile using Australia as a base of operations. Holman, "Australia Woos Multinationals," Wall StreetJournal (1995 May 5): A6. APEC also has embarked on aproject to link electronic databases containing information oninfrastructure projects open to international bidding through the Internet. "This Land, Our Land: Keating's Plan on Aboriginal Rights Angers All Sides." Far Eastern Economic Review 156 (17 June 1993): 12.Scholes, W. Now, he is facing trouble from all sides-including Asia. Australia's current account deficit approximates 4.5percent of GDP, although the country has a positive international tradebalance.[xxix] Australia is a global trading nation; however, increasing emphasis isbeing placed on doing business within the Asian-Eastern Pacific area. Any multinationalcorporation that is not prepared to do business with a truly representativegovernmental structure, therefore, should rethink plans to expand intoAustralia. None of the members of the research sample wereemployed by organizations with fewer than 1 personnel.[xliii] The researchers found that age exerted the strongest influence on theadvancement of women to top-management positions. Economic Aspects Australia has a population approximating 18 million persons with a percapita GDP of A$27,744 (1997) calculated according to purchasing powerparity. Prime MinisterJohn Howard's government has been even less hospitable to labour. A. These five areas are (1) industry, minerals, and energy,(2) food, agriculture, and forestry, (3) finance and banking, (4)transportation and communications, and (5) trade and tourism. "The Developing Countries and Regionalism." Journal of Common Market Studies 3 (June 1992): 211-231.Michaels, E. The current project links databases from five countries. China is already the foremost international purchaser of Australianwool.[xxxviii] Additionally, China has indicated a desire to increasetrade with Australia as a means of decreasing Chinese dependence on theUnited States and Western Europe as sources of goods and technology.Chinese President Jiang Zemin stated that China is ready to raise trade andeconomic relations between the two countries to a new level.[xxxix] Work Environment Australian trade unionism has had a hard time in the past decade-despite having had Labour governments in power led by two former tradeunion leaders, Bob Hawke and Paul Keating. [xli]P. Region Building in the Pacific 4th ed. Implications for Multinational Companies In relation to Australia's historical development, whether the nationremains a constitutional monarchy or becomes a republic will have littlemeaning for a multinational company considering doing business inAustralia. [xiii]"Black and Blue," Economist 323 (2 May 1992): 44. [xliv]Ibid. [viii]"Alice Springs Dam Project Blocked," Facts on File (11 June1992): 431. The Pacific Rim designation wasused to define APEC.[xxxv] The Australian government is targeting Pacific Basin economies as aprime strategy to improve Australian competitiveness in global markets.The Australian Wheat Board, as an example, has initiated a move intoPacific Basin economies that emphasize feed grains as opposed to wheatsupplies. From thebeginning, the tripartite PECC was a serious, though unofficial, effort todefine and pursue the elusive goal of organizing the Pacific for greatereconomic cooperation. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1994.Niblett, R. F. The PECC provided a facilitatingforum, which, through its task forces, emphasized process, exploringapproaches to economic cooperation and anticipating policy issues.[xxii]The PECC's success in promoting an outward-looking region facilitated theformation in 1989 of APEC at the urging of the Australian Prime MinisterBob Hawke.[xxiii] APEC was the first region-wide government forum in thePacific. "Aborigines Turn to Land fund For Redress." Financial Times (7 October 1994): 4.Tharenou, P., Latimer, S., and Conroy, D. Statesman's Year-Book 135th ed. Rees, "Late Bloomer: Australia Belatedly Addresses AboriginalGrievances," Far Eastern Economic Review 158 (12 January 1995): 26. Training anddevelopment ranked third as an influence factor on the advancement of womento top-management positions. The WorldBank has estimated that during the 1996-2 5 period, developing East Asianeconomies will have to invest between US$1.2 and US$1.5 trillion ininfrastructure development projects-equivalent to about seven-percent ofthe gross domestic product of these economies. Importanttrading countries among this group are Canada and the United States inNorth America, and Chile in South America. The findings of thisresearch are presented in relations to (1) historical notes relevant toAustralia, (2) the relevant demographics of Australia, (3) Australia'spolitical characteristics, (4) economic aspects of doing business inAustralia, (5) Australia's work environment, and (6) implications formultinational companies of the foregoing information. Michaels, Bad Aboriginal Art: Tradition, Media, andTechnological Horizons (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1994),xxviii. At Yuendumu, the Walbiri have form a self-governing district on their land, and "demonstrate a strong determinationto survive, to fight back, the retain a heritage of great antiquity andcontinuity."[xi] In the past, white control of the Walbiri's has been bothintrusive and heavy-handed.[xii] Australia has no treaty of any sort with the aboriginal peoples of thecontinent. Wages, however, are increasing at the rate of three-percent per year. Overall, the economic factors characterizing Australia are favorablefor the multinational company considering doing business in Australia.Such a company, however, must be prepared to develop an Australian focusand leave its home country loyalties behind if its expects to gain genuineacceptance in Australia. Within thiscontext, the authors mused that such theories also might be useful inrelation to men as no comprehensive theories of advancement have beendeveloped for men.[xli] The authors also reviewed literature relevant to the variousexplanations for the low rate of advancement of women to the level of top-management in organizations. Nevertheless, theagreement marked the beginning of free trade in Asia. [xxxviii]W. The authors reported that relatively recently comprehensivetheories of advancement have been developed for women. Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press, 1995.Johnstone, B. Acting on a case brought in 1992, an Australian High Court decisiongave Aborigines the rights to land on some islands.[ii] This rulingushered in legislative action designed to satisfy other aboriginal landclaims, while attempting not to alienate current land owners. [xvi]Hunter, 1 5-1 6. [xxxix]"Sino-Australian Ties Foresee New Century," Beijing Review 37(1994 May 2): 4. Such a policy might include the following: (1) tax incentives tosupport either investment or exports; (2) subsidies-direct or indirect-toindustrial firms or industries; (3) protection against foreign competition;(4) worker training programs; (5) funding-full or participating-forresearch and development; (6) grants and loans to support (a) regionaldevelopment, (b) the development of specific industries, or (c) smallbusiness; (7) export financing; (8) loans and loan underwriting to support(a) exports, (b) specific sectors of a domestic economy, or (c) specificfirms; (9) price supports; (1 ) anti-trust; and (11) relatedpolicies.[xxxii] As an element of its industrial policy, financial sector deregulationwas implemented in Australia in 1992 and 1993 (Orden and Fisher, 1993, pp.273-292). The authors noted further that broad socialconditions affect each of these three sets of influences.[xlii] The new data examined by the researchers were collected from 513 womenand 5 1 men who were managers in Australian organizations. An Examination of Influences on Women's and Men's ManagerialAdvancement," Academy of Management Journal 37 (April 1994), 899. A Labour government was elected in Australia in 1993. "Australia Is Keen to Boost Exports of Wildlife to Asia." Asian Wall Street Journal Weekly 16 (1994 June 13): 6.----------------------- [i]B. [xl]B. The Australian Department of Industry, Technologyand Commerce is intent on pursuing an interventionist approach to motivateindustry, however, the Australian Department of Treasury and financeprefers to rely on market forces.[xlvii] One result of this disagreementis a somewhat muddled industrial policy. [xxi]E. Infrastructureinvestment in China alone is projected to exceed US$7 billion during thisperiod. North Sydney, New South Wales: George Allen & Unwin, 1988.Bell, S., and Wanna, J. L. In the United States, major corporations areable to concentrate on a conservative party such as the Republicans toassist such a party to gain a legislative majority through the winner-take-all electoral system where such a legislative majority typically does notaccurately reflect the popular vote. [ii]"Whose's Land?" Economist 327 (29 May 1993): 42. "Getting Runs on the Board." Far Eastern Economic Review 155 (1992 April 9): 4 -41.Langhammer, R. An Examination of Influences on Women's and Men's Managerial Advancement." Academy of Management Journal 37 (April 1994), 899-931.Webb, B. The game meat includes kangaroo,crocodile, fox, rabbit, water buffalo, and wallaby.[xxxvi] Pacific Basin countries also are being targeted for increased exportsof Australian natural gas. Jackson, At Home in the World (Durham, North Carolina: DukeUniversity Press, 1995), 17. Statesman's Year-Book 135th ed. While labour unions inAustralia are not as powerful as they once were, the remain much more of aneconomic force than is true in the United States or even in the UnitedKingdom and Canada. [xi]E. Inflation is under control; in fact deflation occurred in thefirst half of 1998. Australia's role in APEC began in 1989 when the country began the pushfor the Initiative.[xxv] APEC, although initially established forconsultative purposes, has evolved into an 18-country body with aninstitutional framework and an agenda to promote trade and facilitateinvestment.[xxvi] Regional trade arrangements in Pacific Region are far less developedthan either in either Europe or the Americas. The business of government in Australia is executed officiallyby the Executive Council, which is headed by the Governor General who isthe country's official chief executive officer. In Australia, however, majorcorporations must be prepared to deal with legislative bodies at thefederal level of government that quite accurately reflect the popular vote. [xxx]Hunter, 61. Public sectororganizations employed 58.5 percent of the members of the research samplewith the remaining members of the research sample being employed by privatesector organizations. TheEconomic Bureau functions through five separate committees, each of whichexercises association industrial policy development responsibilities in aseparate area. The primary target markets areChina, Taiwan, Korea, and Japan. 58-67). While statistics confirmthat women are under represented in the upper-levels of organizationalmanagement, much of the research reported in the literature fails toidentify the causal factors for this situation. Orden and L. Internationally, Australiaprovides peacekeeping forces for the United Nations interventions in globaltrouble spots. Land holds a spiritualmeaning for the Aborigines and is a part of aboriginal culture.[ix] Theloss of land has been implicated as an important causal factor in therising incidence of alcoholism and other social problems among Aborigines.In central Australia, the Walbiri have regained rights over much of theirtraditional lands.[x] The Walbiri now attempt to negotiate with whitesfrom a position of strength. Rees, "This Land, Our Land: Keating's Plan on AboriginalRights Angers All Sides," Far Eastern Economic Review 156 (17 June 1993):12. J. Among the foreignborn, 3 .5 percent immigrated from the United Kingdom and Ireland, 28.4percent from continental Europe, 19.3 percent from Asia, 7.4 percent fromNew Zealand, and 14.4 percent from all other areas of the world combined.English is the primary language in Australia, and approximately three-quarters of the population are nominally Christian in relation to religiousaffiliation.[xiv] Contemporary immigrants are more likely to be from other Asiancountries than from European countries. Hill, "Blackfellas and Whitefellas: Aboriginal Land Rights,the Mabo Decision, and the Meaning of Land," Human Rights Quarterly 17 (May1995): 3 3. The Pacific Economic Cooperation Council (PECC) was founded as aninformal body in Canberra in 198 by 11 participating countries. [x]M. [xxiv]S. Therefore, the future ethnicmakeup of the Australian population may be expected to become much morediverse and balanced among ethnic groups than is true in contemporaryAustralia. Of thisnumber, 95 percent are ethnically Caucasian, five-percent are ethnicallyAsian, and one-percent are ethnically Aborigines. "Financial Deregulation and the Dynamics of Money, Prices, and Output in New Zealand and Australia." Journal of Money, Credit, and Banking 25 (1993 May): 273-292.Pilger, J. [xvii]Hunter, 1 6. The national parliament didenact a law allowing Aborigines to claim land in Western Australia, unlesssuch land has been developed for farming since 1975.[iv] In early-1994, the national parliament passed the Indigenous LandCorporation Bill to provide A$1.5 billion to help the approximately 9 percent of the aboriginal peoples who cannot afford to exercise the landrights extended to them through court rulings and other legislation.[v] In1994, the national parliament passed the Native Title Act that recognizedthe prior rights of Aborigines to land on a much broader scale than hadapplied in the earlier court rulings and legislation.[vi] Aborigines mayclaim land under this legislation only if the land is not under freehold orleasehold. At Home in the World. With respect to political, as opposed to economic alliances, Australiais a member of the United Nations (UN) and the Southeast Asia TreatyOrganization (SEATO). K. In an economic sense, the Pacific Basin region is typically considered toextend from a northeast point between the Japanese island of Hokkaido andthe southwest mainland of the Republic of Russia where the city ofVladivostok is situated. Martin's Press, 1998."International Openness and Economic Performance." OECD Economic Surveys- New Zealand (October 1994): 53-1 5.Jackson, M. [xxxiv]G. [xlvii]B. As also is true of most otherWestern democracies, the electorate's support for the left of center or theright of center parties varies over time, shifting back and forth from oneto the other. Theauthors presented in the article the findings of a literature reviewrelevant to the determinants of managerial advancement withinorganizations. Business-Government Relations in Australia. [xv]Hunter, 1 5. In the 199 s, Australiacontinues to depend heavily on immigration for population growth-23.4percent of the country's population is foreign born. Approximately two-thirds of Australia's manufacturing firms areforeign-owned. For corporations doing business in Australia, the country also followsan industrial policy. From New Zealand, theeconomic boundary of the Pacific Basin extends northeast to Japan,including New Guinea and the Philippine basin along the way. APEC failure, by contrast, will compromiseAustralia's ability to attain the country's economic goals. Boyd, Region Building in the Pacific 4th ed. [xxxvi]S. The demographic characteristics of Australia represent an advantage toa multinational company considering doing business in Australia because ofthe high levels of literacy and formal educational attainment in thecountry. Economically, Australia faces both challenges and opportunities, andAustralia presents the multinational company considering doing business inAustralia both challenges and opportunities. Historical Notes Although British settlement in Australia began in the late-eighteenthcentury, the various colonies established on the continent were not joinedin a federated state until 19 1. Education accounted for most of the remaininginfluence on the selection decision for men.[xliv] The authors concluded that organizations must take steps to insurethat access to the training required to qualify for top-managementresponsibilities is not limited for women. A trade agreement between Australia and New Zealand in 1983effectively has established a common market of these two countries. Prime Minister John Howard's conservative coalition victory in March1996 ended 13 years of Labor Party rule in a country "that has alwayscelebrated the working man .... Although the national government created a ReconciliationCouncil in an effort to develop a treaty, the majority of Australians wantno treaty that will have any significant economic impact.[xiii] Demographics Australia's population as of the 1991 census was 16,849,496. [xxiii]Cheit, 117. This political stabilityis a strong advantage for a multinational company considering doingbusiness in Australia. The Liberal Party of Western Australia challenged the legalityof the Native Title Act.[vii] Western Australia is home to both miningcompanies and important mineral deposits, and the state government foughtthe High Court ruling. While the Pacific Basin is not a strictlydefined economic term, the designation is usually defined for economicpurposes in a more narrow context geographically than the term Pacific Rim. [xiv]Hunter, 1 4. Endnotes Bibliography"Alice Springs Dam Project Blocked." Facts on File (11 June 1992): 431-432.Anderson, K. Bell, Daughters of the Dreaming (North Sydney, New SouthWales: George Allen & Unwin, 1988), 1 1. Vietnam, Kampuchea, andThailand on the Indo-Chinese peninsula are included in the Pacific Basin,as are Malaysia and Singapore on the Malay peninsula. TheCabinet, which is a creation of the House of Representatives and which isnot a part of the legal mechanisms of government, substantially controlsthe legislative proceedings of parliament. [xxix]"Economic Indicators," Economist 347 (9 May 1998): 1 4;"Financial Indicators," Economist 347 (9 May 1998): 1 5. New York: Pergamon Press, 1998.Cheit, E. Unemployment remains relatively high at7.4 percent. [xxii]Cheit, 118. Fitzgerald, "Don't Knock Oz's Moves Toward Asia," AsianBusiness-Hong Kong 3 (1994 May): 44. With respect to men, however, the researchersfound that training and development accounted for almost three-fifths ofthe influence on selection for promotion to the level of top-managementwithin organizations. From this northeast point, the economic boundaryof the Pacific Basin extends west to the Indo-Chinese peninsula, coveringalong the way the PRC, Taiwan, and Hong Kong. "The Balance of Trade." Management Today (December 1995): 74- 77.Orden, D., and Fisher, L. A major area of APEC activity in the remaining years of the twentiethcentury is projected to be work in infrastructure development. [xlix]Niblett, 76. [xxxiii]D. "A Declaration on Open Regionalism in the Pacific." California Management Review 35 (Fall 1992): 116-13 ."Economic Indicators," Economist 347 (9 May 1998): 1 4."Financial Indicators," Economist 347 (9 May 1998): 1 5.Fitzgerald, S. At the November 1994 meeting of APEC,a commitment was made to create a free trade area across the Pacific by2 1 for industrialized members and by 2 2 for the remaining members. The authors addressed categorized theseexplanations as organizational influences, interpersonal influences, andindividual influences. Many APEC member states, however, remain suspicious the real intentions ofthe United States through that country's participation in APEC. [iii]J. "China Is Foremost Purchaser of Australian Wool for '93/'94." Daily News Record 24 (1994 July 27): 12."Sino-Australian Ties Foresee New Century." Beijing Review 37 (1994 May 2): 4.Tait, N. Tharenou, S. The trend toward greater ethnic diversity in the population ofAustralia should not be a factor to be considered by progressivemultinational corporations. [xlvi]W. Conroy, "How Do You Make It tothe Top? [xxxi]S. As all Cabinet Ministers alsoare members of the Executive Council, actions taken in Cabinet typicallyare translated into law.[xvii] One important effect of the electoralsystems governing the membership of the House of Representatives and theSenate is that a greater variety of thought from the political spectrum inAustralia is represented in the country's two houses of government than isthe case in democracies where some form of proportional representation isnot a characteristic of the electoral system.[xviii] The fact that the electoral systems characterizing representation tothe houses of government in Australia result in representation for a widespectrum of political thought in the country typically does not producecoalition governments reflects the fact that the great majority electoratein Australia, as is true of most other Western democracies, tends tosupport middle of the road political parties that are either slightly leftof center or slightly right of center. Wanna, Business-Government Relations inAustralia (Orlando, Florida: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc., 1997), 147-148. J. [vi]J. "Australia Woos Multinationals." Wall Street Journal (1995 May 5): A6.Hunter, B. On a broader scale, the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC)forum, which held its first meeting in Seattle, Washington in November1993, represents an attempt to extend freer trade throughout the PacificBasin area.[xxiv] The APEC meeting occurred largely at the urging ofAustralia, because the Australian government recognizes that mid-leveleconomies such as that of Australia must have relatively free access tointernational markets. [xlviii]R. "Intensity of Trade Between Pacific Basin Countries." Economics (1993 May): 58-67."An Upset Down Under." Maclean's, 1 9 (11 March 1996): 31."Australia." OECD Economic Outlook (1994 June): 83-84.Awanohara, S., and Chanda, N. With this composition of the research sample, thejustification for generalizing the study findings and conclusions is muchmore powerful than would be the case if the sample was comprised only ofsubjects from one or the other of the sectors. "Australian Exports of Meat to Mexico Shrivel Under NAFTA." Journal of Commerce 4 (1994 June 1 ): 4B.Rees, J. P. A second conclusion drawn wasthat organizations must "fast track" women through training in the same waythat men are "fast tracked" through the training process. Freer trade on such a broad scale, however, may bedifficult to attain if GATT is considered as an example. Politically, Australia is a stable nation. (New York:Pergamon Press, 1998) 25-34. "How Do You Make It to the Top? As an example, the absolute Liberal majority in the currentHouse of Representatives replaced and absolute Labour majority in thepreceding parliament that was elected in 1993.[xix] The chief executive of the Australian government is the Prime Ministerwho is elected by the country's representatively elected federalparliament. In relation to management selection and pay differentials, Tharenou,Latimer, and Conroy tested models of situational and individual influenceson advancement within Australian organizations for both men and women. As a consequence, research anddevelopment accounts for less than one-half of one percent ( .45 percent)of the country's GDP. "Late Bloomer: Australia Belatedly Addresses Aboriginal Grievances." Far Eastern Economic Review 158 (12 January 1995): 26.Rees, J. Overall, Australia is an inviting environment for a multinationalcompany. APEC has implemented a series of initiatives targeted at supportinginfrastructure development goals of the organization's members economies.These initiatives include work towards the development of an Asia PacificInformation Infrastructure (APII), extensive studies on TransportationCongestion Points TCP), creating a public-private sector guidance frameworkto facilitate investment in electricity infrastructure, and analyses ofways in which to increase the availability of capital-public and private-for infrastructure development projects. The industry sectors thatwill require the greatest investments are transportation (US$6 7 billion),followed by power generation (US$493 billion), telecommunications (US$256billion), and water and sanitation (US$153 billion). [xxviii]"Portraits of Diversity," 73. Theagreement between Australia and New Zealand involves two national economiesthat are quite small in international comparisons. [xlii]Ibid. [xii]D. Pugh, "Australian Exports of Meat to Mexico Shrivel UnderNAFTA," Journal of Commerce 4 (1994 June 1 ): 4B. The goal is tohave the economies of all member countries accessible on-line by 2 . [xliii]Ibid. An industrial policy attempts to provide an economicenvironment that either (1) supports industrial development generally, or(2) promotes the development of specific industries or sectors of aneconomy. [xxvii]R. Witcher, "Australia Is Keen to Boost Exports of Wildlifeto Asia," Asian Wall Street Journal Weekly 16 (1994 June 13): 6. Australia, politically, tends to be a strongsupporter of the United States in international affairs. Thus, a more conciliatory approach to government characterizes Australiaand a more conciliatory approach to dealing with the issues is required ofmajor corporations doing business in Australia. In the 199 s, Australia is an independentnation, and functions as a parliamentary democracy. The research also foundthat education was almost as strong as age as an influence factor of theselection of women for promotion to top-management positions. In another action, the Australian Ministry for Aboriginal Affairspermanently blocked the construction of a proposed dam on the Todd River inthe Northern Territory city of Alice Springs.[viii] The proposed floodcontrol project was opposed by the Aborigines because they contended thatthe flooding and construction work would destroy sacred sites. AsAsian-Eastern Pacific trade becomes more important for Australia, thecountry is being required to address carefully regional economic issues. Queen Elizabeth of theUnited Kingdom and the Commonwealth is the official head of state, and isrepresented in Australia by a Governor General who is nominated by theAustralian government and appointed by the Queen.[i] There is acontemporary movement in Australia to make the nation a republic, anoutcome that would sever its relationship with the monarchy. [xx]"Portraits of Diversity," Maclean's (17 November1997): 72. "Don't Knock Oz's Moves Toward Asia." Asian Business-Hong Kong 3 (1994 May): 44-46."High Court Upholds Aborigine Land Act." Facts on File (3 March 1995): 236- 237.Hill, R. [xxvi]"International Openness and Economic Performance," OECD EconomicSurveys-New Zealand (October 1994): 55; D. [xviii]J. A weakness of the study,however, is that only those persons who were successful in their bids forpromotion to top-level management positions were included in the sample.The omission of unsuccessful applicants tended to distort the researchfindings because gender-specific factors may have been implicated in thedecisions concerning the non selected personnel. New York: St. This state of affairs creates a situation wherein there islittle incentive for the majority of Australia's manufacturing firms toperform research and development. The proportional representation systems(proportional representation applied to upper and lower house elections atthe federal level in Australia differ slightly from one another) used inAustralian federal elections, however, do hold implications formultinational companies based in countries without such electoral systems,such as the United States. "Uncommon Bonds." Far Eastern Economic Review 156 (1993 November 18): 16-17.Bell, D. Australia has also initiated a programwherein game meat from Australian wild life will be exported in greaterquantities to Pacific Basin economies. By 1992, the PECC included 2 Pacific economies(Australia, Brunei, Canada, Chile, China, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Japan,Korea, Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand, Peru, The Philippines, Russia,Singapore, Taipei, Thailand, the United States, and the Pacific IslandNations).[xxi] When the PECC was formed in Canberra in 198 , the concept of an "openregion" was more hope than reality. Increasing regionalexclusiveness in international economic organization (the EuropeanCommunity, the North American Free Trade Agreement, the Association ofSouth East Asian Nations, and others) strips away traditional markets forcountries such as Australia, while simultaneously making it more difficultfor such countries to gain entry into new markets.[xlvi] Aggressive andfrequently unfair trading practices by economic superpowers such as theUnited States and Japan create additional problems and barriers for mid-level economies such as that in Australia. Rothkopf, "The Big EmergingMarkets," Business America 116 (August 1995): 9-17. Webb, "Striking Contrasts," New Statesman & Society 7 (2September 1994): S6. APEC success will facilitate Australia's attainment of itslong-term economic objectives. Australian feed grains are more competitive in internationalmarkets than is Australian wheat. The land issue involving Australia's Aboriginal population andother civil rights issues involving this population, however, are factorsthat should be considered by a multinational corporation considering doingbusiness in Australia. Trade involving APEC member states for 65 percent of global trade. Each of thefive ASEAN countries also has its own industrial policy organizations.[xxx] The ASEAN member states, as a group, constitute a larger tradingpartner for Australia than does the European Community. (New York: St.Martin's Press, 1998), 1 4. Monetary policy emphasizes interest rates and money supplymanagement.[xxxiii] Another important element of Australia's industrial policy lies in theemphasis on international trade in the Asia-Pacific sphere. Political Characteristics An independent nation, Australia functions as a parliamentarydemocracy. "Blackfellas and Whitefellas: Aboriginal Land Rights, the Mabo Decision, and the Meaning of Land." Human Rights Quarterly 17 (May 1995): 3 3-322.Holman, R. TheAustralian government is also negotiating with Thailand to open thatcountry's banking, insurance, and telecommunications sectors to Australiancompanies.[xxxvii] The principal Pacific Basin target of the international economicinitiatives of the Australian government is the People's Republic of China. (Ed.). Multinationals are offered both tax and non-tax incentives toinvest in the country, low-interest loans for the purchase of land andfactories, and incentive payments for the production of specifiedproducts.[xlviii] The primary logic for Asian regionalism, including APEC, is market-driven.[xlix] The logic is based, in particular, on increasing levels offoreign direct investment by the most economically advanced Asia Pacificstates. With respect to the Australian work environment, a multinationalcompany considering doing business in Australia should be prepared to dealhonestly and equitably with labour unions. The relatively low mean age of the population also is anadvantage for a multinational company considering doing business inAustralia. K. These factors hold the potential to become highlydisruptive throughout Australian society, especially so in relation toeconomic development and employment practices. J. [vii]"High Court Upholds Aborigine Land Act," Facts on File (3 March1995): 236. Thesuccess of APEC would prevent the emergence of an exclusionary regionalagreement that might be detrimental to Australia's international tradingposition. The Australian government is aiding thecountry's natural gas producers in domestic investment to improvetransmission and construct pipelines. Domestic critics have hounded him on issues ranging fromincompetent ministers to Aboriginal rights. [xix]"An Upset Down Under," Maclean's, 1 9 (11 March 1996): 31. The federal level of government is comprised of a Monarch ashead of state who is represented by a Governor General, a Senate, and aHouse of Representatives.[xv] Queen Elizabeth of the United Kingdom andthe Commonwealth, the current official head of state, is represented inAustralia by a Governor General who is nominated by the Australiangovernment and officially appointed by the Queen. ASEAN pledged in January1992 to trim intra-regional tariffs to five-percent by 2 3 and to create afree trade area for manufactured goods by 2 7. The Australian government isproviding similar assistance to the country's petrochemical sector. In reality, government isexecuted in Australia by the Cabinet, which is headed by a Prime Minister.The Prime Minster and other ministers of Cabinet are elected by the fullmembership of the House of Representatives. A. "Striking Contrasts." New Statesman & Society 7 (2 September 1994): S6-S9."Whose's Land?" Economist 327 (29 May 1993): 42."Winning Ways," Economist 329 (23 October 1993): 44.Witcher, S. [xxv]R. F. [ix]R. The prevailing cultural mores in Australia are essentially European.The relationship between the country's dominant culture and that of thecontinent's native inhabitants, the Aborigines, however, exercises anoverriding influence on many aspects of Australian life. Legislative authority in Australia is vested in the FederalParliament, which is comprised of the House of Representatives, which isthe lower house of government, and the Senate, which is the upper house ofgovernment. P. Australia, thus, must contend with the Association of South East AsianNations (ASEAN). The country's global competitiveness rank is 12, with a corruptionindex of 8.86 (1 is tops).[xxviii] Australia's GDP is increasing at arate of 3.6 percent per year, with industrial production increasing at therate of three-percent per year. Latimer, and D. Awanohara and N. The mostcommon geographical designation in considerations of trade in the Pacificregion is the Pacific Basin. A total of eight states and territories elect their owngovernments within the federal system of government prevailing inAustralia. [iv]"Winning Ways," Economist 329 (23 October 1993): 44. Subsequently, the PrimeMinister of Malaysia, Dr. Mohamad Mahathir, proposed the creation of anEast Asian Economic Caucus (EAEC) to include ASEAN members and Japan.Strong opposition by the United States to this initiative, however, hasstymied progress.[xxvii] With American support, however, APEC appears tohave greater prospects for success. ASEAN is a regional economic development organizationthat is composed of five members: Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines,Singapore, and Thailand. TheLabour Party in Australia is a middle-of-the-road party. Tait, "Aborigines Turn to Land fund For Redress," FinancialTimes (7 October 1994): 4. With respect towomen themselves, the authors concluded that women should ensure that thedivision of household labor allows them greater work experience than hasbeen the typical outcome.[xlv] A strength of the study was that the research sample was comprised ofapproximately equal numbers of personnel from private-sector and public-sector organizations. The removal oftariffs for inter-regional manufactured products within the ASEAN freetrade area that became effective in 1994, however, threatens Australianexports, as Australian products are not qualified for tariffreduction.[xxxi] A strategy suggested by the Australian government forAustralian industry is the establishment of joint ventures betweenAustralian and ASEAN-based firms to qualify Australian products for tariffreductions within the ASEAN free trade area. All of thecountries included within these boundaries are economically a part of thePacific Basin.[xxxiv] When the term Pacific Rim is used to define and economic trading zone,the definition of the Pacific Basin is expanded to include all of thecountries situated in North America, Central America, and South Americathat border the Pacific Ocean (Anderson, 1993, pp. Hunter, (Ed.). The industrial policy organization for thesenations, as a group, is the Economic Bureau of the ASEAN Secretariat. Moving south, thePacific Basin, in an economic context, includes Indonesia and Australia,and then extends eastward to include New Zealand. [xxxii]S. One industrial policy that has been agreed upon, however, is theprovision of incentives to lure additional multinational firms toAustralia. Scholes, "China Is Foremost Purchaser of Australian Woolfor '93/'94," Daily News Record 24 (1994 July 27): 12. Chanda, "Uncommon Bonds," Far EasternEconomic Review 156 (1993 November 18): 16. L. She advocatesan end to Asian immigration, claiming the newcomers are taking the jobs ofwhite Australians. "End of the Keating Myth." New Statesman & Society, 393 (8 March 1996): 14."Portraits of Diversity." Maclean's (17 November1997): 72-77.Pugh, W. [xxxv]K. Anderson, "Intensity of Trade Between Pacific BasinCountries," Economics (1993 May): 58. Orlando, Florida: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc., 1997."Black and Blue." Economist 323 (2 May 1992): 44.Boyd, G. Primarily, the UnitedStates and the European Community continue to accuse one another ofmaintaining unfair subsidies and enforcing artificial barriers to trade,while, at the same time, remaining committed to their own subsidies andartificial trade barriers. [v]N. Cheit, "A Declaration on Open Regionalism in the Pacific,"California Management Review 35 (Fall 1992): 116. IfAmerican actions strengthen perceptions that the ultimate goal of theUnited States is to force Western standards of democratic accountability onAsian nations through APEC trade initiatives, the entire APEC Initiativecould collapse. Far from giving the unions aneasy ride, these two "self-styled modernisers have been responsible for anear Thatcherite assault on organised labour, most recently with aprogramme for industrial relations law, curbing the right to strike andintroducing individual contracts, which caused a wave of protest lastyear."[xl] Nevertheless, union membership remains high with 4 percent ofthe Australian workforce holding trade union membership. [xxxvii]"Australia," OECD Economic Outlook (1994 June): 83. The initialsolution to the land claims made by Prime Minister Paul Keating, however,satisfied neither the Aborigines nor the mining and pastoralinterests.[iii] Keating's proposal was for Aborigines to receive disputedland in Western Australia, Queensland, and the Northern Territory onlyafter exempt leases on the tracts expire. The Hanson controversy has given Australia a publicrelations problem in Asia, where potential investors have asked why theyshould put money in a country that apparently does not welcome Asians.Howard's challenge is to counter the perception that he is too passive indealing with such issues."[xx] The role discharged by government in Australia is the protection ofthe welfare of the country's citizenry and the promotion of Australianpolitical and economic interests globally. And his ambivalence in theface of rising unemployment has helped fuel a surge in popularity for race-baiter Pauline Hanson and her newly formed One Nation Party. Langhammer, "The Developing Countries and Regionalism,"Journal of Common Market Studies 3 (June 1992): 225.
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