For more information
Call 1-800-351-0222
Call 1-800-351-0222
FINANCING OF EDUCATION IN JAPAN.
Term Paper ID:26293
Essay Subject:
Examines various private & public funding approaches which reflect high quality & quanity of nation's educational offerings.... More...
15 Pages / 3375 Words
15 sources, 31 Citations,
APA Format
$60.00
More Papers on This Topic
Paper Abstract:
Examines various private & public funding approaches which reflect high quality & quanity of nation's educational offerings.
Paper Introduction:
Japanese society's ability and willingness to pay for schooling is the single most important factor that affects the quality and quantity of its education system. Japan is a learning society; education plays an important role in the Japanese self-identity. The excess demand for education that cannot be met by the public sector is readily met by Japan's private sector.
In Japan, children are only required to complete nine years of compulsory education, from age six through age fifteen. Compulsory education in Japan, like in the United States, is free. Public schools are completely funded by the government, mostly the Ministry of Education, Science, and Culture, commonly known as the Ministry of Education.
Funding for compulsory education in Japan differs from the
Text of the Paper:
The entire text of the paper is shown below. However, the text is somewhat scrambled. We want to give you as much information as we possibly can about our papers and essays, but we cannot give them away for free. In the text below you will find that while disordered, many of the phrases are essentially intact. From this text you will be able to get a solid sense of the writing style, the concepts addressed, and the sources used in the research paper.
Hometutors are employed by many Japanese families. Education Digest, pp. James, E. These colleges provide two- orthree-year programs of study. 3-36. Kindergarten enrollment is gearedfor children aged three to six. This process of equalizing access tohigh-quality instruction and facilities is a hallmark of Japan's compulsoryeducation system. In 1991, the share of totalpublic expenditure devoted to current education spending was almost tenpercent in Japan, compared to 12 percent in the United States. However, the majority of private institutions in Japan are secular. Martin'sPress. The majorityof private colleges and universities in Japan teach only a single subject;even those schools that diversify do not venture into teaching a wide rangeof disciplines: "They are sometimes known as 'one-third' universitiesbecause of the disparities in resources and quality indicators whencompared to national universities" (OERI, 1987, p. The Japanese Ministry of Health and Welfare operates a system of daycare centers. The primary focus is on the rigorous exams for post-secondary schools. 145). Private universities are not as high quality astheir public counterparts, but some (e.g., Keio, Waseda, and Doshisha) haveexcellent reputations. (1994). As nonprofit organizations, private schools are required to reinvesttheir earnings. Lynn, R. Americans believe that education is important,but not absolutely essentially, for success. and Benjamin, G. Most students attend general, academic schools whosecurriculas focus on the subject matter needed to pass the entranceexaminations for higher education. An alternative to junior college is the technical college. About 3 percent of the private primary,secondary, junior colleges, and universities in Japan are established byreligious organizations, mostly Christian (James and Benjamin, 1988, p.62). Whenexamining public expenditure per student as a percent of gross domesticproduct (GDP), Japan's proportion was less than 17 percent compared to 22percent for the United States (Phelps and Smith, 1996). Learning to be modern: Japanese politicaldiscourse on education. The commitment to education is important in the Confucian andBuddhist heritage, not only for the individual but also for the nation.Throughout the child's compulsory schooling he or she is taught specificvalues, attitudes, and habits that are fundamental to Japanese life:"Respect for society and the established order, prizing group goals aboveindividual interests, diligence, self-criticism, and well-organized anddisciplined study and work habits" (OERI, 1987, p. Beauchamp, E. The school ladder of education in Japan ranges from kindergartenthrough miscellaneous adult schools. Japan and education. New York: St. Japan has a wide range of public and private four-year universities.The top schools are the national universities, with the most prestigiousbeing Tokyo and Kyoto. Stephens, M. The compulsory schoolsystem is incapable of preparing students for rigorous entranceexaminations for post-secondary schools, so jukus fulfill this need.Parents, cognizant that their children cannot hope to pass their collegeentrance examinations without the aid of jukus, are all too willing to paythe often exorbitant expense, and enroll their young children at as earlyan age as possible. Also, privateschools tend to specialize in low-cost areas of instruction such as law andteaching, as opposed to more expensive laboratory sciences. NewYork: Garland. As mentioned above, the top-rankinguniversities are public institutions, and relatively few slots areavailable. (1993). OERI Japan Study Team. Because the Japanese cultural values ofsupport and harmony reign in the classroom as well as in society, theJapanese student is never failed or skipped ahead a grade (White, 1987, p.145). Routledge: New York. The lower secondary school completes the Japanese child's compulsoryeducation. In Japan, with fewexceptions, the private colleges and universities represent the lessdesirable alternatives. Teachers have considerable prestige in Japan, and teacher salariesare an important component of education funding. The Ministry ofEducation is responsible for the entire official system of educationincluding establishing curricula, operating national educationinstitutions, and regulating the establishment of private schools: "As aresult of the Japanese commitment to education the highly centralisedsystem has made demands upon students which would be thought unacceptablein many other developed countries" (Stephens, 1991, p. 65). (1988). One reason that the competition for higher education is so intense inJapan is pressure from a group known as "ronin." Ronin are those studentswho fail to pass their entrance examinations on the first try. Likewise, the Japanese government is not compelled to providespace for all students seeking entry into public high schools, many ofwhich act as feeder schools to the top colleges. Because only a limited number ofstudents will qualify for the national universities, a system of privateschools has emerged to serve the excess demand. The excess demand foreducation that cannot be met by the public sector is readily met by Japan'sprivate sector. Armonk, NY: M.E. 8-12. and Smith, T. 54). The government left major gaps,which the private sector promptly filled" (James and Benjamin, 1988, pp. 21). Funding decisions in Japan are highly centralized under the generalsupervision of the Ministry of Education, which oversees the administrationof education at the national, prefectural, and municipal levels. In America, schools are funded by local taxes.In Japan, the financial responsibility for compulsory schools is shared bythe national, prefectural and municipal governments. The nonacademic jukusprovide instruction in subjects such as calligraphy, music, and the arts.The academic jukus either provide remedial instruction or specialassistance in preparation for entrance examinations for senior high schoolsand universities. Likewise, the prefecturessubsidize the municipalities for certain items, such as salaries andallowances of teachers. 141). Special schools provide facilities for studentswith physical and mental disabilities. 96). Admission to the top-ranking schools is highlycompetitive; students must score impressively on entrance examinations forthe few slots available. Privately runschools of various shapes and sizes offer classes seven days a week: "itis estimated that 6 to 7 percent of all junior high students attendprivate afterschool classes at least two to three times a week for twohours each time" (Duke, 1986, p. Feinberg, W. New private education institutions are relatively easy to establishbecause they are small-scale, labor intensive enterprises. New York: St. The Japanese are preoccupied with the discipline of hard work andstudy: "Japan is a learning society of formidable dimensions" (OERI, 1987,p. (Prefectures areabout the size of small or medium states.) The various governmentalentities that finance education in Japan raise their funds from taxes andother sources. (April 1994). 329-335. These boards are responsible for operating schools, licensingteachers, paying teacher salaries, and providing financial assistance tomunicipalities. Private educational enterprise flourishes in Japan because theJapanese student cannot possibly learn all that is needed to pass his orher entrance examinations just by going to regular schools. In addition, the national government also providessubsidies to private education institutions. This further explains the willingness of Japanesefamilies to make financial sacrifices for their children's education. In Japan, a prestigious education is absolutely essential forsecuring affluence. The national government equalizes the funds that the prefectures andmunicipalities receive so that gross inequities do not occur. (1994). Education funding in Japan is controlled by the laws of supply anddemand. Nationaleducational radio and television programs broadcast mathematics and otherschool-related material during the daytime and evening. Knowing that a significant portion of students areenrolled in jukus to supplement their schooling, Japanese teachers havelittle incentive to make sure that all students learn. Introduction: Japanese education since 1945. Japanese society's ability and willingness to pay for schooling isthe single most important factor that affects the quality and quantity ofits education system. Education in Japan. Boulder, CO: Westview. 124). (January 1987). At the prefectural level, each prefecture has a 5-member board ofeducation. 55). Japan and the pursuit of a new Americanidentity. Theadministration allocates resources according to need, often givingpreference for disadvantaged areas. All public school teachers have the same payarrangements within each prefecture. 8). 56). The situation in higher education Japan is the reverse of theeducation system in the United States. Economist, pp.46-47. Educational achievement in Japan. Suchpeople do exist in Japan, but they are the exception and often of an oldergeneration" (Stephens, 1991, p. White, M. Private schools are a profitable enterprise in Japan because of thegovernment's policy of educating the masses at the lower level butproviding access for only a relatively small group at the higher levels.The Japanese government legally requires such schools to operate asnonprofit organizations. (1989). Sharpe. Or a high schoolmight establish a college or university which the high school can feedgraduates into. These schools are free and provide six years of generaleducation. (1987). Nevertheless, manyprivate universities charge exorbitant fees. Schooling in the upper secondary level in Japan is highlydifferentiated. Armonk, NY: M.E. (1996). 114). Funding for compulsory education in Japan differs from the systemused in the United States. TheJapanese child can rely on the total support of his or her teacher, peers,and parents; thus a failure is considered more of a "team defeat." AsWhite (1987) observes, "Failure is most keenly felt by the mother, whotakes the blame upon herself and will often sequester herself at home forweeks, ashamed to go out" (p. Because theentrance examinations weigh so heavily in the experience of students, mostschool teachers in Japan "teach to the exams," that is, they teach subjectmatter that will be useful to students when they take their tests. More than 5 percent of the private secondary schools inJapan were established as a result of vertical integration from anaffiliated school (James and Benjamin, 1988, p. The Japanese family assumes thepsychological burden of making sure their children study hard after school;placing the child in a juku is considered mandatory for parents trulyconcerned about their children's welfare. Jukus are an important component of the Japaneseeconomy: "many are part of nation-wide chains and have made many anentrepreneur affluent" (Beauchamp, 1994, p. (June 28, 1997). 11 ). Duke, B. Compared with other countries, the Japanese government does not spenda large amount of its budget on education. 196). Lastly, Japan's educational system includes both special schools andmiscellaneous schools. Granted, almost all Japanese students eventually attend, but the type ofhigh school the student enters is almost as important as entering collegegiven the fact that certain top high schools are "feeders" into prestigiouspost-secondary institutions: "the question of one's future is broached asearly as the second year of junior high school, for some, earlier" (White,1987, p. 2, pp. Thenational subsidies cover a portion of the cost of salaries and allowancesfor educational personnel at compulsory schools and special schools,teaching equipment, and school construction. Forinstance, a university might provide venture capital to establish a feederhigh school. Public education is not a substantial portion of Japan's nationalbudget because of the presence of a strong private education industry.This industry is fueled by funds from a stable, middle-class societywilling to bear a significant portion of the costs of schooling. Sharpe. The Japanese public is likewise concerned: "the Japanese inthe street overwhelmingly agreed with the statement that their countrymenplaced too much emphasis on educational background" (Marshall, 1994, p.246). Vertical integration is a common means of start-up forprivate schools in Japan because of the substantial revenues that theseschools generate. The notion that worker harder and longer is the ultimate key toeducational success underpins the popularity of jukus in Japanese society.Juku is the name for the ubiquitous private, for-profit schools found inJapan. 3). 9 No. If a child has difficulty then heor she must simply work harder and longer. Japanese education: Hardly known hardfacts. 1 3-128. Other students attend specializedvocational programs. Public policy and privateeducation in Japan. According toGoya (1994), the entrance examinations for academic high schools are merelytests of elimination because of the limited number of slots: "If there are3 freshman slots available and 3 4 students apply, the test is given toeliminate four students. These universities function as gatekeepers, admitting onlythose who have demonstrated their worthiness by enduring what the Japaneserefer to as "examination hell," the period when the Japanese youth focusesall his or her creative energy on meeting the requirements for entry intotheir schools of choice. Phelps, R. In EdwardBeauchamp and James Vardaman, Jr. In the wake of therecent Asian financial crisis, business leaders have expressed the need forcollege graduates who are knowledgeable about modern finance, globalaffairs, and information technology: "employers want graduates to be ableto be creative self-starters" ("The Struggle," 1997, p. The most prestigious universities are public institutions fundedby the national government. The same policy for transferring teachers to achieve equity withinprefectures holds for staffing, maintaining, and equipping schools. A large portion of Japan's topleaders in government and in business hail from a handful of selectuniversities. Entrance isbased on examination results alone, virtually no consideration is given togrades, teacher recommendations, or other evidence of academic achievement. The Ministry of Education has responded to the call for reform byproposing sweeping changes, some involving education funding, such asproviding more public universities: "If the quality of higher education isto be improved, it is essential for government authorities to strive toincrease public spending" (Higher Education, 1994, p. In Edward Beauchamp and James Vardaman, Jr. As Lynn (1988)notes, "the high educational standards in Japan are not apparently achievedthrough exceptionally high public expenditure" (p. The Japanese educational challenge. New York:Free Press.----------------------- 18 The private sector meetsthe excess demand at both the secondary and post-secondary levels: "Theprivate sector can thus be seen as 'the other side of the coin' from whatthe government decided it would provide. In contrast, the United States fosters the belief ofrugged entrepreneurialism. TheMinistry of Education relies on 13 standing advisory councils, with themost powerful being the Central Council for Education. Kindergartens are non-compulsory, butmost parents view them as essential for their children's future success.Most of the kindergartens in Japan are privately operated and chargetuition; even the publicly-operated kindergartens charge tuition, albeitthe fees are based on parental income. Students move through the elementary and middle-school years withthe rest of their cohorts regardless of differences in academic abilities. However, by the high school level, which in Japan is notcompulsory, educational access reflects the results of tracking based onentrance examinations scores. Marshall, B. New York: Praeger. Higher education reform proposals, August 1987. Public schools arecompletely funded by the government, mostly the Ministry of Education,Science, and Culture, commonly known as the Ministry of Education. Education in states and nations.Washington: National Center for Education Statistics. Jukusfulfill both an academic and nonacademic need. Thus anyexamination of the quality and quantity of education in Japan must analyzeboth public and private sectors. The struggle to create creativity. Japan is a learning society; education plays animportant role in the Japanese self-identity. 65). Once a child reaches six years of age he or she is required to attendelementary school. Martin's Press. These centers accept children under the age of six. Sharpe. Compulsoryeducation in Japan, like in the United States, is free. In fact, attendance is considered mandatory if astudent hopes to enter a prestigious college: "Nearly all students whoaspire to national university must spend one to four years in a jukucramming for tests. Commercial workbooks aresupplied by publishers of Japanese textbooks; homework materials designedso that students can supplement their school learning. Very fewJapanese children are born to single mothers; children are mostly raised innuclear families in which the father works and the mother is a homemaker.Most Japanese families have two or fewer children. 1 ). Educational Policy, Vol. In America, after World War II, thefederal government met the excess demand for education by funding publicuniversities. Even Japaneseintellectuals have expressed concern about the "overeducation" of society,given the fact that an increasing number of college graduates are unable tofind jobs. The average Japanese parent considers juku fees anecessary part of the family budget. These boards operate schools in their jurisdictions, selecttextbooks from the list approved by the Ministry of Education, and makerecommendations to the prefectural boards regarding the appointment anddismissal of teachers. The Japaneseeducation system is characterized by long school days and school years,with minimal school holidays. Feesare based on the ability of parents to pay. Once a student enters an academic high school, the amount of learningthat actually takes place as a result of teaching is questionable. 257-258). Throughout a student's years of compulsory education, his or herprimary concern is entrance into prestigious high schools and ultimatelyprestigious colleges or universities. At the municipal level, each municipality has a 3- or 5-member boardof education. Thelower secondary level marks a critical period for Japanese youth becausethey are required to pass entrance examinations just to attend high school. The average Japanese family is consideredmiddle-class by American standards. Despite the existence of strong public and private initiatives,Japan's education system has been the subject of recent reforms. This facilitatestransferring teachers from urban to rural areas and from rich to poor areaswithin the prefecture: "uniformity and general high standards are thedefining principles" (Rohlen, 1995, p. 54). Tuition is charged at both public and private uppersecondary schools. The failure of a student to advance into a prestigious slot at anational university is not attributed to individual failure, it isattributed to the group. (1994). Rohlen, T. The vast majority of youths finish lower secondary school andgo on to non-compulsory forms of education: "The Japanese experience showsthat education need not be compulsory, nor need it be provided publicly, tobe acquired by a large proportion of the population, in the presence ofstrong labour-market incentives" (James and Benjamin, 1988, p. Theseschools generally offer five-year programs. 46). TheJapanese curriculum is geared for the high-achiever, which is why remedialjukus are widespread. Cognizant of the profitability of such schools, bankersare not reluctant to lend funds on favorable terms to finance new ventures: "During a period of excess demand, when education is a profitableindustry, the creation of new schools is a logical response to the questionof what to do with net earnings that cannot be distributed to owners"(James and Benjamin, 1988, p. (1991). Differences that make a difference:Explaining Japan's success. Prefectures primarily have authority over upper secondaryschools: "Most of the public high schools are funded and run by localgovernments (municipalities and prefectures), although a few are national"(James and Benjamin, 1988, p. Department of Education. The high school with which the university is affiliated willthen have preferential entrance status for its graduates. Family incomes are rarely destabilizedby factors such as unemployment, drugs, divorce, and poverty. (1986). Undeterredby failure, many of the ronin drop out of school and devote their effortsfull-time to cramming for exams. Historically, the major corporations and bureaucracies in Japan employgraduates from a handful of select universities, exerting further pressureon students to apply to these schools. In addition to the private, nonprofit education institutions, Japanhas a robust industry of private for-profit schools and instruction. Miscellaneous schools are extremelydiverse, offering a wide range of course in vocational and practicaltraining. Even at the elementary school level, children are tested withfrequency: "the extensive use of commercially prepared tests is routine.Most teachers employ those accompanying the textbook" (Duke, 1986, p. References Beauchamp, E. "Passing' scores can be as low as 5 percent" (p.8). 11). Jukus range from large corporations to family-run businesses: "Themajor corporate chains have immense total enrollments--at least one hasmore than 1, , students nationwide" (OERI, 1987, p. One of the tracks available for students who graduate from uppersecondary schools is the junior college. Thus teachers can be assigned to anyschool in the prefecture at the same level of income. Students, mostly male, studyto become middle-level technicians in fields such as engineering. To understand the willingness of the Japanese to provide privatefunds for education, it is necessary to first understand their culturalbeliefs. Private universities like Harvard and Princeton are amongAmerica's most elite, although some public universities like University ofCalifornia, Berkeley are equally prestigious. Many parents enroll their children in an academic jukuas early as first or second grade" (Goya, 1994, p. Goya, Susan. 124). Most Japanese students enter jukus willingly, partly because alltheir friends attend. Thousands of Japaneseschool teachers, professors, and college students supplement their incomesby teaching at jukus. The Japanesebelieve that incorporation of these traits makes it possible for anystudent to master the school curriculum. The Japanese School. Japanese education today.Washington: U.S. 1 ). The characteristic mode of establishment for most Japanese privateschools is the vertical integration system; one school starts another. (Eds.) Japanese Education Since 1945: Adocumentary study, pp. AsBeauchamp and Rubinger (1989) note, "the Japanese are consumed with doubtsand apparently bent on the most significant reform of their educationalsystem since the Occupation period" (pp. 55-56). In Japan, children are only required to complete nine years ofcompulsory education, from age six through age fifteen. Japanese teachers have astrong, socialist-oriented union and are generally higher paid than theirWestern counterparts: "starting salaries for teachers in Japan are higherthan the starting salaries of businesspeople and engineers with the samelevel of education, and has been rising compared to other occupations"(Feinberg, 1993, p. Armonk, NY:M.E. The national government hastried to address this situation by providing financial aid to students whoattend private institutions (mostly student loans) and by raising thetuition at public universities to equalize the cost differential tostudents. (June 1995). As Goya (1994)points out, "Third-year students are studying third-year English becausethey are third-year students not because they have passed second-year oreven first-year English" (p. The existence of alarge, middle-class society characterized by economic stability andcultural beliefs that value learning make it possible for the Japanese toexpend large sums of money on private education. 333). The ability of Japanese parents to finance supplemental education isan important consideration. Most of the students in these institutionsare female. 63). American business history isreplete with stories of "self-made" men and women who, armed with a uniquevision, have become captains of industry: "To the Japanese [the] romanticview of the self-made man or woman would seem largely irrelevant. Ronin sometimes constitute as much as 3 percent of a university's applicant pool (James and Benjamin, 1988, p. (Eds.) Japanese EducationSince 1945: A documentary study, pp. and Rubinger, R. Excess demand exists because of the largesupply of students desiring entry into these universities. The push for reform hasbeen spearheaded by the Japanese business community. (1988).
If this paper is not what you are looking for, you can search again:
or
We can write a Custom Essay just for you.
Browse Essays by Subject