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FOREIGN LANGUAGES IN JAPANESE SCHOOLS.
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History & evolution of instruction from 19th Cent., focusing on English since WWII. Political, cultural, practical aspects.... More...
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Paper Abstract:
History & evolution of instruction from 19th Cent., focusing on English since WWII. Political, cultural, practical aspects.
Paper Introduction:
Foreign language instruction in Japanese schools has historically been stimulated by Japan's nationalistic interests. During the Tokugawa period, Western languages were taught to Japan's future military specialists. During the Meiji period, the emphasis on nation building and modernization led to an influx of Western influence and the need for the acquisition of foreign language skills among the elite. Instruction in Western language ceased as Japan geared itself for World War II. The post-World War II allied occupation of Japan witnessed a renewal of the trend toward Westernization but a conservative backlash occurred shortly afterward in which foreign language instruction was de-emphasized. Today, Japan's government has set a course of modernization for the country, with the intent that Japan achieve full participation in the global community. As part of this
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(1994). (1988). Martin's Press. The Japanese government, responding to the concerns ofanxious parents, has even established reentry programs for such childrenaimed at reintegrating them into Japanese culture. 35). Tests, when they are perceived as fair and impartial, serve thepurpose of motivating students to work hard: "[Tests] are important inhelping people believe that the world is fair and that most of us get whatwe deserve . As one prominentJapanese professor notes, "International education is the acquisition ofinternational skills and attitudes that enables the person to advanceJapan's national interests" (Beauchamp and Rubinger, 1989, p. Instruction inWestern language ceased as Japan geared itself for World War II. As such,internationalization would supposedly allow Japanese culture to "contributeto the creation of the peaceful and prosperous international communitybased on co-existence and cooperation among diverse cultures and amongpluralistic systems" (Stephens, 1991, p. Japan was, and continues to be, one of the most homogeneoussocieties in the world. Since English is the international language of business,commerce, science, and technology, fluency in this language is consideredprerequisite for internationalization. Any proposal for reform must acknowledge that it will be difficultfor the Japanese to displace their emphasis on academic performance viatests. Sharpe. OERI Japan Study Team. Commodore Matthew Perry forcedJapan to abandon its seclusionist policy. An understanding of Japan's historical approach to Japanese languageinstruction makes it easier to comprehend its modern approach to theinstruction of English. Educational Policy, Vol. The Japanese Ministry of Education relied on a wide range ofprominent foreign advisors to provide guidance in the establishment of itseducation system, curriculum, and pedagogy. All reference to feudalconcepts, class stratification, subservience to authority, the divinerights of emperors, undue racial consciousness, anti-foreign sentiment, andnationalistic and militaristic goals were purged from textbooks. 1 5). After the Occupation period, conservative reaction over reforms inlanguage instruction occurred. Rohlen, T. Theforeigners could rarely speak Japanese and few Japanese were fluent enoughin Western languages to benefit from instruction at the specializedinstitutions. Although Japanese products are diffused around theglobe, the Japanese have not played a significant role in the conduct ofworld affairs. Animportant private initiative supplemented the government's efforts bysponsoring Japanese students who wished to study abroad. Because some critics considered this program too blatantlyWestern, the government went through elaborate steps to ensure that theoverseas scholars did not convert to foreign religions. The fact that each of the government bureau developed its own foreignlanguage program was illustrative of the fragmentation of Japan's highereducation system at the time. During the Meiji period, the emphasis on nation building andmodernization led to an influx of Western influence and the need for theacquisition of foreign language skills among the elite. Japan's foreign language policy has traditionally allowed for theexport of culture while maintaining a careful lid on cultural import.Consequently, internationalization is a popular buzzword in Japaneseeducators' efforts at modern reform. As White (1987) points out, Japanese children who havelived or traveled overseas and return speaking English are oftenstigmatized, "the returnee's conversational fluency may earn him theepithet 'foreigner,' or he may be later treated as an eigoya, a 'seller ofEnglish'" (p. Consequently, the typicalJapanese high school graduate possesses a low level of practical Englishskills: "the high school graduate, after studying English for six years,can on the average barely understand a simply constructed question, letalone answer the question in correct English" (Duke, 1986, p. In 1854, U.S. 77). These preparatory coursesranged from two years to four years, most at the post-primary school level. Central Council for Education, June 11, 1971. The Japanese simultaneously fear and embraceWestern influence, cognizant of the need to modernize but apprehensiveabout the impact of modernization on culture. In 1873, the Ministry ordered each of theseven university districts to establish a Foreign Language School. During the Tokugawaperiod, Western languages were taught to Japan's future militaryspecialists. (1994). Reforms for coping with the changes of the times, April 1, 1987.(1994). Below the samurai were the peasants, artisans, and merchants. 2 1). The ulterior motive of thegovernment's reforms, however, is blatant self-interest. The Ministry had twoinstitutes of advanced training under its direct control which used Westernlanguages as the basis for instruction. The post-World War II allied occupation of Japan witnessed a renewal of the trendtoward Westernization but a conservative backlash occurred shortlyafterward in which foreign language instruction was de-emphasized. He advocated a school system that would steep Japanese students innationalism and moral discipline: "Mori gambled on the indoctrination ofthe school system curbing the dangers for the relatively small numbersgoing forward to the intellectual exhilaration of university study"(Stephens, 1991, p. The post-War occupation of Japan by Allied forces had a profoundeffect on internationalization in education. The Tokugawa period marked the beginning of popular education inJapan. 9, No. In Edward Beauchamp and James Vardaman (Eds), Japanese EducationSince 1945: A Documentary Study (pp. Japanese education: Hardly known hardfacts. 61). . Public policy andprivate education in Japan. Simultaneously as Japanese language instruction is accelerated forthe lower secondary student, he or she is introduced to English languageinstruction. 151). But thescholarship program, too, ended in failure: "Tests given to returningstudents substantiated the charge that few could demonstrate that theirstudies had resulted in usable skills even in foreign languages" (Marshall,1994, p. Given the rigors of the curriculum,Japanese teachers are incapable of helping students who fall behind. (1965). 36). These academies introduced specialized training inoccupational areas, and taught a wide variety of subject matter including:"Western languages, Western military science, navigation, coastal defenses,and natural sciences" (Beauchamp and Rubinger, 1989, p. and Rubinger, R. Goya, S. A typical academichigh school, the Japanese student devotes six hours, of a total of 34hours, per week to English language instruction. Although this period saw the flowering of urban culture, the Tokugawaeventually pursued a policy of almost total seclusion from the outsideworld: "It was a system designed to perpetuate itself unchanged" (Dore,1965, p. The Ministry of Education believes that the driving force inempowering Japan as a global partner is education. Education in Tokugawa Japan. Marshall, B. 12). Japanese education today.Washington: U.S. Applicants desiring to study in theUnited States had to demonstrate basic proficiency in English. The Ministry of Education soon encountered the same linguisticdifficulties as the other government bureaus. 59). Before the War, language instruction wasbased on grammar and the Japanese classics. Westerninfluence was de-emphasized in favor of instruction on character-trainingand the virtues of obedience and loyalty to the emperor. 31). But many students havetrouble with the content and pace of the curriculum, in particular English: "Third-year students are studying third-year English because they arethird-year students, not because they have passed second-year or even first-year English" (Goya, 1994, p. The curricula of these programs included intensiveforeign language instruction: "These preparatory courses constituted thefirst 'secondary' schooling in the new educational system--curriculaintended to bridge the gap between primary schools and advanced education"(Marshall, 1994, p. In 1872, a committee oftwelve issued Japan's new school law, the Fundamental Code of Education.The Education Code divided the country into school districts, withuniversities, middle schools, and universities in each district. In the upper secondary school (grades 1 -12), Japanese students arerequired to take an additional three years of English. 2, pp. The Japanese School. References Beauchamp, E. Part of the problem lies in the inability of the Japanese teachingstaff to instruct students in English. Since there was a shortage ofJapanese experts to teach the subjects offered by these specializedinstitutions, the Japanese imported foreign instructors: "By the 187 sthere were, perhaps, 5 foreign experts employed in Japan's educationalsystem" (Stephens, 1991, p. But the jukus, like the public schools,gear the English instruction toward test-taking. Therefore, despite numerouscomplaints about the heavy burden of "examination hell" on Japanesestudents, a significant portion of the Japanese population believes thatthe present system works and should not be tampered with. Duke, B. Department of Education. New York: Praeger. (April 1994). Japan was determined to gain aposition of equality with the West, and education reform was imperative forthis objective. English language instructionmust include a similar verbal component. 39). Beginning early, Japanese language classesemphasize the acquisition of important oral skills in addition to readingand writing: "Practice in public speaking, speaking calmly and succinctlybefore a group, is a regular part of the curriculum, starting in 1st grade"(OERI, 1987, p. (1991). New York: St. Japanese children spend one-fourth of theirtime in elementary school just mastering their own language. 16). Mori was a nationalist,who combined a Western style of thinking based on his extensive travelsabroad. The Japanesegovernment acknowledges the need to restructure its policies regarding theteaching of English: "English language instruction in Japan today is veryinefficient. Stephens, M. Similar to instruction in Japanese, instruction in English isbased on memorization and rote learning. 327). The aloofness of Japanese society has proven costly to the country'snational interests. The Japanese educational challenge. Boulder, CO: Westview. While the Ministry of Education was developing its school system,various government bureaus were busy reforming Western institutions in wayswhich would stimulate the need for English language instruction. To solve this problem, the government bureaus establishedtheir own foreign language preparatory programs. 23). Once the Japanese student has acquired sufficient English languageskills to pass relevant examinations, his or her interest in pursuingEnglish wanes. White, M. Lynn,R. 215-223). During the Meiji period (1868-1912), Japan's government importedforeign advisors and technology for industrial, commercial, and educationalpurposes. Reforms gave children a betterworking knowledge of language that could be used in everyday life: "In theMinistry of Education reforms of 1947 the Japanese language (and alsomathematics) were made 'tool' subjects with the former including grammar,spelling, reading, writing, speaking and listening skills" (Stephens, 1991,p. Although an elective subject, according to Department ofMinistry requirements, nearly all lower secondary schools require 3 yearsof English: "The choice is not surprising, in part because English is oneof the required subjects on university entrance examinations" (OERI, 1987,p. Although the study of English was somewhat limited in the publicuniversities, instruction flourished in private academies. Among the largest and most prestigious was Keio: "By 1875 ithad a total of over 37 students studying the English language and Westernlearning" (Marshall, 1994, p. Japan is world renown for its high literacy, a tradition that beganduring the Tokugawa period (between 16 and 1868.) Society was based on alegally established four-class system. (June 1995). As a result, in lessthan half a century Japan was transformed from a secluded feudal societyinto an industrialized world power: "All became immersed in the systematicpursuit of the elusive keys to modernization, then locked rather securelyin the values of the rapidly developing industrial nations of North Americaand Europe" (Duke, 1986, p. to studyforeign education, to collect materials bearing on the subject, and toserve as experts on education in foreign countries upon their return"(Beauchamp and Rubinger, 1989, p. The desire to acquire proficiency in a foreign language cannot beseparated from a society's deep-seated cultural beliefs. 155).When a Japanese businessman travels overseas he usually can count on thesupport of his fellow expatriates to help him with communication problems.For this reason, the Japanese have been able to establish foreignsubsidiaries in almost all parts of the English-speaking world. An examination of this historyis critical to understanding the nature of English instruction in Japan'sschools today. Considered in an international context, Japanese teachershave a relatively low level of tertiary education: the length of trainingfor American primary school teachers is 4.5 years compared to 2.7 years forJapanese teachers (Lynn, 1988, p. TheFinance Ministry started offering courses in Western economics, theMinistry of Justice established a law school, the Ministry of IndustrialWorks opened an engineering school, and the Ministry of Foreign Affairsdeveloped a foreign languages institute. Japan will never be able to takeadvantage of true cultural exchange until it systematically develops theEnglish skills of its population. Differences that make a difference:Explaining Japan's success. Japaneseworkers who take overseas assignments uniformly possess at least arudimentary knowledge of English: "Every Japanese worker, the vastmajority incapable of speaking English, has a basic understanding ofwritten English and can, with the use of the dictionary, understand thecontent of manuals and reports published in English" (Duke, 1986, p. NewYork: Garland. Martin'sPress. " (Feinberg, 1993, p. Granted, the ubiquity of Japanese productsand multinational corporations assure the presence of the Japanesethroughout the globe. 37). Revolts by Japanese activistsforced the resignation of the shogun government, and imperial governmentwas restored under the young Meiji emperor in 1868. In EdwardBeauchamp and James Vardaman (Eds), Japanese Education Since 1945: ADocumentary Study (pp. 35). 321-329). The resultof this requirement meant that only the elite could qualify for studyabroad. Official missions were sent to examine modern Western societies: "They sent out intelligent and well-prepared officials . Teacher qualifications for English instruction is another area ofpossible reform. Berkeley:University of California Press. . 136). These schools had gradedcurricula, were mostly co-educational and unrestricted by social class.The subject matter taught in these schools was not limited to Confucianprecepts: "Its practical value gained appreciation by the townspeople who,without decree or compulsion, increasingly undertook voluntarily to havetheir children educated" (Duke, 1986, p. Granted, many Japanese teachersmay not be qualified to teach oral English so, at minimum, Japaneseclassrooms should be equipped with language laboratories where studentscould practice their skills using electronic media. The government has set about the taskof convincing the public that Japan must become a more dominant force inthe international community. In Edward Beauchamp and James Vardaman (Eds), Japanese EducationSince 1945: A Documentary Study (pp. A significant number of Japanese students attend:"Nearly half of Tokyo's sixth graders, for example, are getting after-school extra help with one or more basic subjects (math and English are themost popular)" (Rohlen, 1995, p. Combining the two, the Japanese created a system of compulsoryeducation at the lower levels tapering to high-quality, extremely selectiveeducation at the uppermost levels: "Largely because of the educationallegacy of two such systems already in place during Tokugawa times, Japanwas able to move quickly and effectively to enlarge its educational reach"(James and Benjamin, 1988, p. The government, with the approval of thebusiness community, returned to the pre-War methods of teaching Japanese,which emphasized memorization and rote work; the learning of language basedon Japanese classics and complex grammar was also reinstated: "Theexplosion in demand for post-compulsory education in the 196 s reinforcedthe trend" (Stephens, 1991, p. . Thus, in addition to the six years of English instruction thatJapanese high school graduates possess, most have also received instructionin English from private schools. By the 19th century, Japan's Tokugawa socioeconomic order hadvirtually collapsed, a condition that was to have a profound effect on thecountry's education system. 1 3-128. Most of these schools operate in the eveningsand on weekends. (1993). 32). New York: St. 1). Regardless of its motives for internationalization, Japan will neverachieve this goal unless Japanese students master English. Educational achievement in Japan. Systemization of education in Japan began in earnest with theestablishment of a Ministry of Education in 1871. Learning Japanese requires the mastery of threeseparate and visually complex writing systems: "Concern with this problemseemed to leave little room for the possible consideration of reforms orinnovations to bring foreign language teaching into the primary schools"("Reviews," 1994, p. (1989). Toward thisend, a similar system should be used for English instruction as is used forthe instruction of Japanese. Foreigninstructors were supposed to staff these schools but most these positionsended up being filled by native Japanese. James, Estelle and Benjamin, Gail. The financial burden ofmaintaining these schools proved too much for the government, however, andby 1877, all but the Tokyo Foreign Language School was closed. 154). Sweeping education reformswere implemented by the Occupation authorities, in which Japan's system wasrebuilt along the lines of an American model. 14). The government remainsanxious that the Japanese people might become ambiguous about nationalinterests as a result of internationalization. It is necessary to make a basic review of the teachingcontent and methods of this subject" ("Reforms," 1994, p. 1 8). Dore, R.P. Today,Japan's government has set a course of modernization for the country, withthe intent that Japan achieve full participation in the global community.As part of this process of internationalization, the government hasrecommended that English become a national language in Japan. Again, thereason is the entrance examination: high school and university entranceexams test written rather than spoken skills in English. (1988). Education Digest, pp. 131). New York:Free Press.----------------------- 19 217). (1987). These schools necessitated the creation ofpreparatory programs. Foreign language instruction in Japanese schools has historicallybeen stimulated by Japan's nationalistic interests. The Japanese admired the American system for itseducation of the masses and the French system for its advanced training forthe elite. The six years of English language instruction that Japanese studentsreceive in public school serves Japan's national interests well. The TokyoForeign Language School became a preparatory division of the new TokyoUniversity. 36). . The employment of a large number of foreign advisors and teacherscreated a dilemma for Japan because of linguistic difficulties. The Japanese havealways harbored underlying fears that Westernization will result in thecontamination of their culture: "Due to expanding international exchangeand the development of mass media, events which are going on all over theworld in different cultures are giving new stimulus to our daily lives.The international stimulus contributes instability to our value system"(Central Council for Education, 1994, p. Recognizing the need for the advanced study of subjects taught in theEnglish language, the Japanese government focuses on the overseas scholarprogram. Besides sending their experts to the West to investigatevarious traditions, the Japanese government sponsored the importation offoreign specialists in a wide variety of fields, including education. Learning to be modern: Japanese politicaldiscourse on education. The Occupation authorities also turned their attention to reform ofJapanese language instruction. 155). The Japanese have accepted theview that there is a correlation between academic achievement, workerproductivity, and national interests. The most innovative of the Tokugawa schools, however, were theprivate academies. Throughout Japan's history, the acquisition of foreign languageskills has waxed and waned in importance. 197-211). The average Japanese teacher, whilewell versed in detailed knowledge of the techniques of the Englishlanguage, has a low level of oral communication skills: "few Japaneseteachers of English have substantial proficiency in conversational oridiomatic English" (OERI, 1987, p. Education Council, Japan Committee for Economic Development, 1984.(1994). Such an attitude serves tomaintain Japan's insularity. At the apex were the samurai, whoduring the Tokugawa period, were transformed into literate militarybureaucrats. (1986). 132). Such schools wereattended by commoners and the curriculum emphasis was on Confucian ethics.So widespread was this educational movement that by the end of the Tokugawaperiod about 4 to 5 percent of commoner males, from 1 to 15 percent ofgirls, and almost all the children of the court nobility and samurai classhad achieved some level of literacy (OERI, 1987, p. One of the schools taught generalWestern studies, the other taught specialized medicine, the former inGerman, the latter in English. Armonk, NY: M.E. By the timethey reach the lower secondary level, students study Japanese at anaccelerated rate, even learning to read short passages in archaic languageand literary style. Cognizant ofthe threat of military aggression from the West, the Tokugawan academiesserved as training grounds for Japan's future military specialists. New York: Routledge. (1994). But Japan itself has largely remained an insularsociety: "Japan's closed system can still be strongly seen in variousfields of society such as education, and meeting the needs ofinternationalization has long been delayed" (Education Council, 1994, p.285). (1987). A significant number of theEnglish instructors in jukus are university students, hired because oftheir ability to pass their university entrance exams. In Edward Beauchamp and James Vardaman (Eds), Japanese EducationSince 1945: A Documentary Study (pp. This accomplishment was facilitated by the establishment of small-scale local schools called terokoya (the parish school). The only way towork within the system and improve English proficiency, therefore, is therecommendation that high school and university entrance examinationsinclude tests of verbal as well as written English. In contrast to instruction inJapanese, the focus on English is reading and writing only. In addition to the schools established by private initiative, duringthe 186 s official schools were also opened. The government's response was to tighten the criteria forentry into the scholarship program; new entrants were required to passrigorous qualifying examinations. Feinberg, W. Remedial instruction in English is provided by private sectoreducation in Japan, the "juku." Jukus are private institutions thatparallel public instruction. Lengthening the amount of trainingfor Japanese teachers to include English would allow for the introductionof the subject during Japanese students' primary school years, a criticalperiod for the acquisition of bilingual skills. In 1886, Mori Arinori, the new Minister of Education, established aneducational system that was to last until 1945. 28). The national school system designed by the Ministry of Educationresembled a huge pyramid with a state-supported university at its peak.The primary models for this system were those in existence in the UnitedStates and France. Japan and education. 1 ). Education in Japan. 175). The currentstatus of English instruction in the Japanese school system, however, iswoefully inadequate to meet this goal. Although the Ministry of Education did not reject all Western ideas,the rise of the military to power and impending war created a strong trendtoward nationalism by the 194 s.World War II virtually wiped out the progress in Japanese education towardinternationalization: "once war broke out with the United States andBritain, the English language was dropped from the secondary curriculum anda great many loanwords were replaced by Japanese equivalents" (Marshall,1994, p. Reviews of national policies for education: Japan, January 11, 197 . By the third grade, only about one-third of thestudent's time is devoted to composition. 8-12. 151). This Codealso marked a departure from the Confucian ideals of the Tokugawa period:"Ministry leaders were drawn from those who believed that knowledge had tobe acquired wholesale from the West" (Marshall, 1994, p. The Ministry of Education should require that Japaneseteachers possess basic proficiency in English verbal and oralcomprehension. Requiring oral Englishin Japan's existing system of testing would give students, and society,personal involvement in the learning process of acquiring a foreignlanguage. 8). Teachers at thegovernment's public institutions often moonlighted in the private sector.Because secondary education was not yet compulsory in Japan, a number ofprivate institutions were established to fulfill the demand for higherlearning. Among them was Professor DavidMurray of Rutgers University who, in 1873, was appointed Japan's "NationalSuperintendent of Education." The Ministry of Education also senteducators to foreign countries to study their education systems andincorporate their findings on their return to Japan: "When the new Meijigovernment took the first step to institutionalise a modern educationalstructure in Japan in 1872, one of its major goals was to use that systemto create a united citizenry which would enable Japan to compete on anequal basis with other nations in the modern world" (James and Benjamin,1988, p. 284-291). ContrastJapan's six year English language requirement with the foreign languageeducation policy in the United States: "Only 2 percent of all four-yearpublic colleges in the United States required foreign language credits foradmission" (Duke, 1986, p. Japan and the pursuit of a new Americanidentity. The Japanese student learned at an early age thathis or her allegiance was to the well-being of the state.
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