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EDUCATION IN JAPAN.
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Causes & negative & positive effects of intense competition in nation's elite high schools & colleges.... More...
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Paper Abstract:
Causes & negative & positive effects of intense competition in nation's elite high schools & colleges.
Paper Introduction:
The culture of competition at certain levels of Japanese education is all-consuming. Once the Japanese student completes compulsory education, he or she is confronted with formidable entrance examinations for high school and college. Ironically, the student's school experiences prior to and after the onset of this "examination hell" are characterized by a marked lack of competition. The Japanese grade school student enjoys considerable support both from teachers and peers in the classroom. The Japanese college student encounters minimal academic demands. Only students fighting for the few available slots in the elite high schools and colleges participate in Japan's relentless culture of competition.
The intense competition in Japanese education appears a contradiction for a society that values egalitarianism, group
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Nor is the failure of the Japanese education system limited to Japan. The annual rankings of high schools resembles the attention given toprofessional sports teams in the United States. Ironically, the elite higher education institutions imposeless stringent academic demands: "The better the university into which astudent has been accepted, the more relaxed and enjoyable his college yearsare apt to be" (James and Benjamin, 1988, p. 29). James, E. Students are rarely disruptive in class because of positivepeer pressure to enhance the cooperative learning environment for all:"schools reflect the society of which they are a critical part" (Stephens,1991, p. Japanese secondary teachers become so concerned over the effect ofstudent failure on the exams that they often discourage students fromapplying to schools where their chances for entry are not strong. All that isneeded is hard work, diligence, and perseverance: "Parents and teachersencourage regular study habits from the 1st grade on" (OERI, 1987, p. Itmakes little difference about the quality of the teaching staff or theeducational environment at the high school, all are ranked in order of thesuccess of their graduating classes. The competition that exists between Japanese high schools is a sourceof motivation for both teachers and students alike. New York: Praeger. The entrance examination as a social sorting mechanism replaces theclass system based on birth that characterized Japan's Tokugawa period.During this period there was no opportunity for movement between the eliteand the commoner social classes. 9). It is impossible for the teaching staff, parents, or studentsto escape the competitive pressures of such intense scrutiny: "In Japan itis not a mere handful of schools that are hierarchically ranked foracademic excellence, but all schools" (Lynn, 1988, p. Private schools were established, some of whichemphasized Western styles of learning. Teachers have apowerful incentive to work hard to maintain the reputation of theirschools. Washington:U.S. 78, No. The primary and lower secondary (Grades 7-9) schools in Japan aregenerally characterized by the absence of tracking. This national curriculum has aneffect on textbook production, teacher training, and standardization inlesson planning. Phi Delta Kappan, Vol. From about the age of15 onward, the student is preoccupied with securing his future place insociety based on performance on entrance examinations. The majority of commercial high school students arefemales preparing for a few years of office work prior to marriage. (1994). As White (1987)points out, "In Japan few opportunities exist to change paths or retool;the American idea that you can re-create yourself at any time in life, thatlife is full of second chances, that the self-made person can get ahead, isin no way a Japanese reality" (p. The culture of competition that is created in the Japaneseeducational system has a negative impact on student learning. Learning to be modern. Although it is unclear whether Japanese teachers regard this 2 percent as a problem, it is clear that the focus of the teachers is on the8 percent who are senior high school bound. The Japanese believethat almost any child can master the educational curriculum. Competition in modern Japanese society can be conceived of in termsof a funnel. The major goal ofthe student's high school years is to learn the information needed to scorewell on exams, and secure a place in a top university. 217). 11 ).Japanese teachers often find themselves in a dilemma; as much as they maywant to develop higher-level learning skills in their students, theconstraints of time and the pressure of examinations often makes itimpossible to do so. Japan and the pursuit of a new Americanidentity. Not to face their looming powerover future careers is to penalize students" (Rohlen, 1995, p. New York:Armonk. Public policy and privateeducation in Japan. Employers of the majorcorporations and bureaucracies of Japan are rigid and inflexible in theirchoice of students; these employers choose new hires almost exclusivelyfrom a handful of prestigious schools. For many American students, college isa wake-up call to accelerated achievement. TheJapanese college student encounters minimal academic demands. Given the intensity of the competition for entry into college, theJapanese student assumes a cavalier attitude about work ethics once entryis gained. (1988). The American college studentwho has taken advantage of his or her academic opportunities in thislearning environment usually graduates with an appropriate set of skills tomeet the challenges of the professional world. Japanese school children arenot hounded by the specter of failure like their American counterparts.Because the student, teacher, and parents (especially mothers) worktogether as allies, the stigma of failure is diffused, with teachers andmothers often shouldering most of the blame. New York:Free Press.----------------------- 18 The union feels that teacherswho engage in this practice are acting contrary to the values of theegalitarian style of instruction. Armonk, NY: M.E.Sharpe. Both teachers and school district officials areconcerned with this task: "In many prefectures, mock tests are held everymonth designed to place every child in his exact place in the ability rangeso that he can apply for the right high school" ("Reviews," 1994, p. Competition among students isminimized: "Classroom activities are structured to encourage or requireparticipation in group activities, to emphasize the responsibility ofindividual students to the class as a group and the school as a whole, andto develop group loyalty" (OERI, 1987, p. By the time they reach high school, the students aretracked into schools based on what teachers, parents, and society perceiveas their chances of career success: "what is gained in efficiency by anearly separation of pupils in terms of their future career goals and theirability to assimilate knowledge is lost in terms of a rigid social classstructure and in terms of an increased social distance between the high andlow in society" ("Reviews," 1994, p. Only during the final year of theJapanese student's lower secondary schooling does tracking begin inearnest. Unfortunately,the Japanese educational system imposes significant constraints to thedevelopment of such a workforce. Duke, B. Much hasbeen written about the need for reform: "The destiny of Japan in thetwenty-first century will be greatly affected by whether this educationalreform is successfully brought about or not" ("Implementation," 1994, p.336). In Edward Beauchamp and James Vardaman, Jr. Onlystudents fighting for the few available slots in the elite high schools andcolleges participate in Japan's relentless culture of competition. 116).Because Japanese moral education, which is required at all educationallevels, teaches the value of working toward common goals, poor performanceis viewed as a breakdown in human relationships; repair focuses on re-establishing harmony. and Rubinger, R. Armonk, NY: M.E. Young men were prepared from birth to assume the occupational slotsthat were established: "This matched well with a long-standing dispositionon the part of the Japanese to see children as relatively undistinguishedby special abilities or handicaps at birth" (James and Benjamin, 1988, p.7). Because test taking requires a unique set ofskills a so-called average student might have an equal chance of success asan intellectually superior student. The global economy demands workers whoare adept at creativity, originality, and self-motivation. Japan's educational leaders have acknowledged that educational reformwill not come quickly. In contrast, thecollege experience represents an extended period of academic relaxation.If the Japanese student is not educationally challenged at the secondary orcollege levels, when will this intellectual stimulation occur? The effect of entranceexamination competition on Japanese society is to create clear categoriesof winners and losers. Education Digest, pp. According to White (1987), it is the juku that amelioratesthe Japanese cultural contradiction between competition and cooperation:"Their proliferation is a natural response to the pressures created bydiscrepancies between the goals of individual families, the egalitarianideology, and the structuring of the formal school system" (p. The culture of competition at certain levels of Japanese education isall-consuming. The top ranked schools are so highly selective thatan intense competition is generated. Martin's Press. An example issalaries. Education in Japan. Feinberg, W. 32). Competition is minimized in other work areas as well: "Manysuccessful Japanese companies also work to cushion failure, and it isimportant to note that the salary gap between the lowest-paid shop workerand the highest-paid executives in Japanese firms remains among thesmallest of all industrialized countries" (Feinberg, 1993, p. Since innate ability was relatively uniform, the Japanese had noqualms about tracking children into set career paths. The glaring shortcomings of the Japanese educational system arecoming to light at a time when the country is most in need of anintellectually skilled labor force. In addition, theemphasis of the instruction was on moral education instead of encyclopedicknowledge. Japanese high schools rarely accommodate students with differentlevels of ability. 8-12. JapaneseEducation Since 1945: A Documentary Study, pp. The press even analyzeshistorical data and makes future projections of the schools' rankings. From this point on, Japan society gradually became moreopenly competitive. Theseschools, commonly known as "jukus," offer a wide range of academic and non-academic courses. The Japanese education system is afailure, say some Japanese. There was no needfor schools to act as screening mechanisms, since the screening had beenpreset by virtue of birth. 328-33 . In Japanthere are three types of high schools, academic, vocational, andcommercial. The intense competition in Japanese education appears a contradictionfor a society that values egalitarianism, group harmony, and cooperation.Emphasis is placed on maintaining social relations. Bracey, G. The student who grasped the principles of loyalty, respect,filial piety, group harmony, and trust was afforded greater prestige thanstudents who were intellectually superior. To succeed in gaining entryto the senior high school of their choice, lower secondary students mustfirst pass an entrance examination. They rarelyhelp out at home, have outside employment, date, or spend time outside thecontext of home and family: "School remains the major occupation ofchildren at high school age" (James and Benjamin, 1988, p. And with Japan's system of lifetimeemployment, the college graduate who does not find employment with a majorfirm has little hope of ever doing so in the future. Students who cannot keep up with the public school curriculum oftentake advantage of supplemental education in the private sector. Only rarely is a Japanesecollege student failed for poor academic performance; for a collegeprofessor to do so would generate considerable controversy. The years of college are described as the most relaxed that theaverage Japanese experiences over his lifetime, particularly for males. Differences in ability in the Tokugawan schoolswas minimized because students were mostly taught by individualinstruction, even though grouped together in classrooms. In contrast,the classroom environment in the United States is very competitive, partlybecause grade point averages are strong determinant factors in universityadmissions decisions. Grade levels in Japan are divided into classes that stay together forthe entire school year; this unit forms a unique classroom community inwhich students are organized into "han" or work groups. NewYork: Garland, 1989. The laidback lifestyle of the Japanese college studentresembles that of the typical American high school student. Incollege, the student has the opportunity to pursue interests andfriendships. Because all pupils and students are valued, each feels a sharedresponsibility for group success. Only 43 percent of the Japanese senior high school studentssurveyed scored above the 5 th percentile nationally in reading, although73 percent reached the 5 th percentile in math (Bracey, 1997, p. (1986). Rohlen, T. References Baris-Sanders, M. Like the Ministry of Education, the Japanese Teachers Union has comeout strongly against teaching to the exams. Theheadmasters of the successful schools are often interviewed on televisionand radio. Incontrast, the major occupation of the Japanese college student is exploringthe social and leisure benefits of college life. Lynn, R. (Whencomparisons are made between Japan and other nations in the internationalcommunity, results based on academic high schools are used exclusively.)Most vocational high schools are, in the eyes of the Japanese, low inprestige, partly because they are reserved for students who could notqualify for academic high schools. General Reference Center. 3). A study of the offspring of native and immigrant Japanese parents residingin the United States found that these students, too, lack critical thinkingskills. Boulder, CO:Westview. If a studenthas secured a place in an elite university he has little reason to beanxious about future prospects. This competition is widely reportedin the Japanese media: "Every year a complete list of the names of thoseobtaining entry to the University of Tokyo and to the other eliteuniversities are published in the Japanese press" (Lynn, 1988, p. Mostfeel they have a duty to their students to do so: "Exams are the realityin more than half of Japan's high schools. Whereas American school teachers use gradesto motivate their students, Japanese teachers can rely on the culturallyentrenched competitive nature of entrance examinations. 259-26 ). A majority of Japanese parents enroll their children inacademic jukus: "86 percent of ninth grade children report having attendeda juku at some time" (White, 1987, p. The majority ofJapanese professors sympathize with the students and therefore set minimalstandards for passing. 32). Marshall, B. Classroom andextracurricular activities focus on this goal in the final years of lowersecondary school and throughout the high school years. Thepoor performance in reading was evident even for those Japanese studentswhose parents held college degrees. Beauchamp, E. 1 3-128. Commercial high schools are placed even lower onthe prestige scale. Japan and education. As a result of this dilemma, the Japanese student often getsshortchanged in terms of learning experience. The Japanese grade school student enjoysconsiderable support both from teachers and peers in the classroom. The Japanese educational challenge. 77). Overall, the entranceexamination industry is a source of prosperity for many in the Japaneseeconomy. (1994). 77). The collegeentrance examination is the only window of opportunity the Japanese studentwill ever have to determine his or her occupational status. 8, p. Once the Japanese student completes compulsory education,he or she is confronted with formidable entrance examinations for highschool and college. White, M. Japanese Education Since1945: A Documentary Study, pp. 329). (December 1997). Most classes are taught by lecture, and theexpectation of student attendance is low. The academic high schools have the greatest prestige. The sharing ofideas and helping within these work groups is encouraged, rather thandiscouraged. 2 2). Entry intoa prestigious high school places the student on the path to almostguaranteed career success: "Students know that their scores on high schooland university entrance examinations will strongly influence their futurelife path" (OERI, 1987, p. The prestige of high schools in Japan is based solely on the numberof students who gain admission to highly ranked colleges and universities.Student success at this goal is based almost exclusively on the results ofentrance examinations. (1987). Even among the Japanese elite, thesamurai, there was only limited opportunity for movement among the variousranks. AN: 19481713. 11). Collection:89F3421. Granted, students whodecide to do graduate work must work harder than their peers, but thenumbers of students pursuing doctorate degrees is relatively small inJapan. (1987). Available:Infotrac Search Bank. Cooperative education: Lessonsfrom Japan. and Benjamin, G. The Japanese school. Students have an even stronger incentive to succeed. A significant portion of the Japanese student's final year in lowersecondary school is devoted to preparation for the senior high schoolentrance examination. 2 9). Although much maligned, the American system of education succeeds insome areas in which the Japanese system fails. Goya, S. (1993). A student's intelligence, or relative lack of it, is notperceived as being the key determinant of educational outcomes. Department of Education. Because high school in Japan is notcompulsory, students who take the examination and fail simply will not beable to attend. Although the majority of students go on to uppersecondary school (the Japanese equivalent of the American senior highschool), an estimated 2 percent of students do not ("Reviews," 1994, p.2 1). Mag. 197-211. Because jukus are not regulatedby the government, they vary from small, family-run operations to corporategiants. Nevertheless, secondaryteachers routinely teach with the examinations uppermost in mind. Educational Policy, pp. Studentswho expend the time and effort to learn, usually by repetition andmemorization, are expected to do well. New York: St. (April 1994). Having undergone such an extended period of deprivation, societyvirtually indulges the Japanese college student, who has literally securedhis or her career future. (June 1995). OERI Study Team. By basing teacher pay on seniority, the Japanese minimizecompetition. 228). (1989). Unfortunately, the culture of competition in Japanese school limitsinnovation and risk-taking. Japanese education today. The cultural priority that Japanese society places on harmoniousrelationships is evident in the classroom. Although Japan's Ministry of Education comesout against teaching to the exams, the Ministry facilitates this practiceby establishing a national curriculum. The consciousness of the entire society must beraised to envision a school system that embraces, rather than, stiflesindividuality. Bythe time the student reaches the lower secondary level, the competitionexists at a regional scale; the children are competing against thousands ofothers in their locality for entrance into the local schools. In Japan, compulsory education ends after the student's last year oflower secondary school. For example, Japanese highschool students study subject matter that will benefit them when they taketheir entrance examinations, but little emphasis is placed on criticalthinking skills: "Neither in high school nor at other levels do studentsdo much writing. Teaching to the exam encouragescramming, which is detrimental to learning. Students within classrooms have little foreknowledge of who willsucceed in gaining entry to their schools of choice, thus each has anincentive to help the other. Also resistant to change are theuniversities that reap financial rewards from substantial entranceexamination fees and the proprietors of jukus. (1994). Although a differential in salaries of teachers based on theteacher's degree and certificate level determines the initial level of pay,this differential decreases dramatically by the end of the professionalcareer. 79, No. Therefore, high school attendance is considered aprivilege. Powerful forces within Japanese society resist such reform, however. (1991). New York: Routledge. If a large number of students from a school fail to pass,the school will suffer a loss of reputation destined to become commonknowledge: "Junior-high-schoolers are guided by their teachers intoapplying for the type of high school the teachers feel will reflect best onthe junior high" (Goya, 1994, p. Phi Delta Kappan, Vol. While Japaneseyouth are in high school, they are still considered children. Martin'sPress. Stephens, M. (Eds). Japanunderwent a period of intense economic change: "More direct competitionwas gradually introduced into the schools, more administrative jobs carrieddirect salaries, more ranks became eligible to hold them" (James andBenjamin, 1988, p. As one Japanese professor describes thesituation, "The opportunities to the top universities are virtuallymonopolized by the top high schools, and graduates of these top schoolstend to secure jobs leading to the elite positions in society" (Beauchampand Rubinger, 1989, pp. They are not assigned research projects or asked to doany original work" (James and Benjamin, 1988, p. Sharpe. Among them are the parents of children trying to take advantage of theopportunity for social mobility. 4, pp. 4). 335-338. Reform is imperative, however, because the Japanese student isvirtually being cheated out of a quality education. Thus, competition at Japanese colleges and universities is mostlynonexistent. 3).With the exception of special classes for children with severe handicaps,all Japanese students are placed in classrooms where little regard is givento ability. 8). 3). Eliminating the culture of competition in Japan'seducation system would require major changes in societal values. 33). In contrast, theopportunities for higher learning are minimal for the Japanese collegestudent because Japanese society has failed to acknowledge the criticalneed. 78). 619(5). The exceptions are the few vocationalhigh schools that have the ability to prepare students for their collegeentrance examinations. Even students who transfer from one school district toanother encounter no problems with schooling because there is littlegeographic variation in education. Differences that make a difference:Explaining Japan's Success. As Duke (1986) puts it, "The student, after somany years of intensive preparation, has come to the stage where hebelieves it is his right to be graduated whether he attends class, opens abook, or ever checks a reference in the library" (p. Each year, millions of Japanese high school students enterthe funnel in hopes of becoming the fortunate few who squeeze through thenarrow opening at the other end: "The result is not an aristocracy ofbirth, but a sort of degree-ocracy" ("Reviews," 1994, p. Some jukus focus on enhancing school performance but many geartheir teaching to preparation for high school and college entranceexaminations. Ironically, the student's school experiences prior toand after the onset of this "examination hell" are characterized by amarked lack of competition. Although somestudents are able to overcome the tracking that occurs at the lowersecondary school level and successfully gain entry into a high-ranking highschool, it is the rare high school student who can overcome the liabilityof not being accepted to a top-ranked college. For the first time in Japanesehistory, it became possible for families to improve their social statusthrough education. (April 1997). 2 1).These tests are not as prevalent as they once were; however, schooladministration interest in student ranking remains high. Download pages: 1-8. 76). Implementation of educational reform, August 1987. Reviews of National Policies for Education: Japan, January 11, 197 . Schools themselves did not become competitive until the 19th century,when Tokugawan Japan came under the influence of Western society. As mentioned earlier, the Japaneseplace priority on hard work, diligence, and group harmony: "in theJapanese classroom school children and their teachers are to a considerabledegree engaged in a co-operative enterprise, working together to ensurethat everyone does as well as possible" (Lynn, 1988, p. Japan hasproven its ability to re-invent itself when faced with formidablechallenges in the past. 27). Higher education, inparticular, is decidedly superior. Japanese education: Hardly known hardfacts. Teachers have a hidden agenda in their efforts to track the studentstoward the "right schools." The prestige of lower secondary schools, andto a greater extent high schools, are determined by the percentage ofstudents who pass their exams and gain entry into the top-rankedinstitutions. In general, the Japanese college student regards university studyas a time to rest before assuming the rigors of employment. New York: St. (1988). Despite the pressure to do well on entrance examinations, theJapanese student encounters very little competition in the classroom. Theseinstitutions are sometimes referred to as schools for brides: "Theprograms offered were either narrowly vocationally oriented or intended foryoung ladies preparing to be housewives" (Marshall, 1994, p. InEdward Beauchamp and James Vardaman, Jr. Thecompetition for university entrance exists on a national scale; studentscompete against others in the country as a whole. Intellectually brighter students areoften paired with slower students in a "buddy system" of learning.Although each class has a homeroom teacher, the classroom essentiallybelongs to the students and it develops into a place where they study, eatlunch, and engage in extracurricular activities: "In fact, while studentsin America can't wait to leave school, Japanese students never seem to wantto go home" (Baris-Sanders, 1997, p. Educational achievement in Japan. (Eds).
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