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MANAGEMENT & SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY.
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Applies theories to organizational change, re-engineering, govt. vs. private sector, resistance, forward & backward mapping, integrated change strategy.... More...
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Paper Abstract:
Applies theories to organizational change, re-engineering, govt. vs. private sector, resistance, forward & backward mapping, integrated change strategy.
Paper Introduction:
PRINCIPLES OF SOCIETAL DEVELOPMENT: APPLICATIONS OF SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY IN ORGANIZATIONAL MANAGEMENT-A DEPTH ANALYSIS
Introduction
This research constitutes the depth component of the analysis of the principles of societal development. Applications of social development theory in organizational management provides the general focus of this depth analysis, with the specific focus of the analysis on the management of organizational change.
Contrasting Contemporary Assumptions Relative to the Management of Organizational Change With Earlier Assumptions
The earlier contributors considered in this comparison are Woodrow Wilson, Fredrick Taylor, Max Weber, and Mary Follett. The
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Osborne and Gaebler (1991) argued that government can be reinvented bymaking public administrators and public employees assume responsibility fortheir own performance serving their citizen-customers. These steps are as follows(Rajagopal & Bernard, 1993): 1. Deregulating the publicservice. The third stage,"refreezing," is defined as the period within which "new behaviors arepracticed and reinforced" (Goad & Hough, 1993, p. In the mid-192 s, Mary Follett (1926) observedthat "the shrewd common sense of many a business executive has shown himthat ... Further, such a partnership will be successful only ifsome benefits accrue to all of the collaborators. Reason, 26(4 ), 72-73. By contrast, Woodrow Wilson(1887) contended that government should be seeking new service deliveryopportunities. Cleaning up afterreengineering. Fad surfing in the boardroom:Reclaiming the courage to manage in the age of instant answers. The "unfreezing" stage in Lewin's change theory is the period whereinchange agents create dissatisfaction, while motivating relevant personswithin the group to accept some type of change. (1926). (Translators and Eds.).Essays in sociology. Noticeabledifferences between tactically and strategically oriented ... Once thegoals and objectives are established, the issues that will affect theirattainment are identified. The rational planningmodel is a rational-deductive approach to decision-making that begins withgoals or objectives. The external environment factors that influence an industry or a firmare generally grouped under headings such as "micro," "macro," and"international" (Rajagopal & Bernard, 1993, p. In Ziegler, S. People haveto find their own way through the system to figure out what to do. The goals approach is most effective foruse in hierarchical organizations with clear mandates and missions. It is the organizational structure that affects thecoordination of activities, delegation of authority, communication flows,and task responsibilities, both within the organization and external to theorganization (Rajagopal & Bernard, 1993). Rules and regulations arenot written down, or if written down are frequently ignored. The reinventing government concept was introduced by Osborne andGaebler (1991) at an opportune time, because increasing public performanceand productivity with less fiscal support was becoming a necessity in theearly-199 s. Identify the Process Elements in Strategy Development. Leaving room for individual and team contributions. (1996, September-October). Weber, M. These characteristics areas follows (Daft, 1997): 1. Further, the directapproach is not suitable for organizations with a strong hierarchicalauthority. So managers becomedefensive and employees resist. The development of an integrated change strategy can be divided intothree major phases, as follows (Rajagopal & Bernard, 1993): 1. Thehierarchy of authority is not clear. Interdependence refers to thenecessary dependence between members of an organization, regardless ofhierarchical level. Performance-related strategies. Lewin's field theory with emphasis onchange. Additionally, however, such strategies must alsoconsider organizational goals, and the transitional nature of theenvironment in which an organization is functioning (Daft, 1997). The study of administration. The first step in thegoals approach is the establishment of goals and objectives. Individuals developa sense of well-being or security after adapting to an organizationalpattern, and to changes to the status quo are viewed as threats to thissecurity (Daft, 1997). 73). To successfully manage change within an organizational environment,the manager must be able to correctly discern the meanings of the actionsby members of the organization, and must be able to understand the motivesunderlying such resistance to change. Osborne and Gaebler (1991) contended that government should rid itselfof many of its service delivery functions. 13). Strategic procurementand competitive advantage. The underlying assumption of the rational planning model(forward mapping) is that either a consensus exists among an organization'sstakeholders as to the desirable goals or objectives for the organizationor there exists a major stakeholder with the power and authority to pursuea set of goals or objectives in the absence of a consensus amongstakeholders. (1993, Fall). Sociological and sociopsychological resistance to change is oftenthe most difficult type of resistance to discern, as well as often beingthe most difficult to counter. Though his methods producedinitial successes with a tremendous rise in efficiency, he lamented thefact that only fatigue and human frailties stood in the way of additionalimprovements and more efficient operations. 53). 18). environment" (Porter, 199 , p. Interaction refers to the development and fostering ofopen relationships between organizational members, and betweenorganizational subunits. P. London: TheMacMillan Press Ltd. The purpose of an information system is to support decision making andplay a key role in the process of innovation. (1997). The most effective system for a company is not necessarilyone that provides either maximum efficiency or least total cost, "butrather one that fits the needs of the business and strives for consistencybetween its capabilities and the competitive advantage being sought"(Rajagopal & Bernard, 1993, p. Reinventing government: How theentrepreneurial spirit is transforming government. Their significance,however, must be recognized and addressed by successful managers. (1946). Phase I: Analyze Inputs: This phase involves informationgathering and appraisal. Similarly, Max Weber's (1946)writings on the benefits of a bureaucratic structure of organization alsoexpressed concern that the ideal form of organization-as he describedbureaucracy-is hampered by the people who inhabit it. Applications of social developmenttheory in organizational management provides the general focus of thisdepth analysis, with the specific focus of the analysis on the managementof organizational change. Systems-related strategies. The change agent referred to in change Theory is defined as an"individual who is skilled in change theory and the practice of plannedchange" (Goad & Hough, 1993, p. The antidote for reengineering: It maynot be too late to rebuild the "bank account of trust." Industry Week,245(8), 2 . Motivating people by communicating the value of the target. Critics of theOsborne and Gaebler (1991) approach to reinventing government then contendthat, in effect, no party is really accountable under such a system. Porter, M. Principles of Societal Development: Applications of Social Development Theory in Organizational Management-A Depth Analysis Introduction This research constitutes the depth component of the analysis of theprinciples of societal development. From these behaviors and actions at the lowest-level elements of an organization, the policies that are required tosupport these "front line" actions are developed through a bottom-upprocess. Competitive advantage of nations. Applications of social developmenttheory in organizational management provided the general focus of thisdepth analysis, with the specific focus of the analysis on the managementof organizational change. (1994, August-September). The indirectapproach, thus, can be useful in an unstable environment whereinorganizational members are unclear as to both what is occurring within theorganization's external environment and what they themselves are doing ininteracting with this external environment. Organization theory and design. Osborne and Gaebler (1991) proposed a simple but unusually perceptiveand workable thesis to the effect that governments should "steer, not row"(p. The contemporarytheorists considered in this comparison include Michael Hammer and JamesChampy, who contributed the increasingly concept of re-engineering, andDonald Osborne and Ted Gaebler, who contributed the concept of reinventinggovernment, which is applicable to both public and private sectororganizations. 74). The vision of success approach, thus,develops strategy based on what the organization wants to appear to be, asopposed to what it actually does. Fear of impending changemay cause an individual to react emotionally through the display ofprejudices and cultural values (Daft, 1997). Rather, the process must be collaborative and involve all members ofan organization. professionals must shift from ashort-term, tactical orientation to a longer term, strategic orientation.Strategic managers must develop a broader set of conceptual skills tofulfill their areas of responsibility within the organization. 4. The bottom-upapproach is most effective in organic organizations. New York:Springer Publishing Company, pp. The force field iscomprised of factors that function both as driving forces and asrestraining forces with respect to a specific action or phenomenon. Efficiency was sought in each case. 34). Information collection, analysis, and dissemination should be partof a change agent's function-it can affect the firm's ability to gain andretain a competitive advantage. The indirect approach to strategy analysisand development is, in reality, a sort of "brainstorming" process whereinthe participants in the process have no clear idea about either where theyare going or why they are bothering to make the effort. The theory is more a framework within which planned changecan be developed than it is a proactive approach to change implementation. Lewin's change theory assumes that a change agent will identifysources of dissatisfaction, determine the character of the factorsresponsible for this dissatisfaction, formulate a planned change to addressthe problem, and then implement the planned change. Reinventing focused on adjusting the approaches publicmanagers could explore, such as public private partnerships, contracting-out, load sharing, privatization, vouchers, empowerment, volunteers, TQM,participatory management, and alternative service delivery mechanisms.None of these procedures were new, but many had not been applied in theUnited States for a long while, and never had governments consideredapplying them all at once as might be appropriate for the variousresponsibilities of government. That concept,however, does not really address the issue of which body-government or aprivate contractor-is ultimately responsible when some tragedy occurs thatis attributable to the actions of a public-private partnership. 2. Re-engineering fails, however, because "starting over" forcescompanies to implement re-engineering only on a piecemeal approach. It becomes reactive and loses its competitive edge. The underlying reason for resistance to change by individuals areinsecurity, economics, and sociopsychological factors. (4th ed.). The identification stage is made up of sixactivities, as follows (Rajagopal & Bernard, 1993): 1. With government acting in a steering capacity, Osborne and Gaebler(1991) viewed the solutions to society's problems as collaborativepartnerships between governments and private sector entities. 6. Motivators for change are defined asconfirmations that some form of desirable outcome is not being attainedunder existing operational conditions. 187). Focusing the organization's attention on the essence ofwinning. Rajagopal, S., & Bernard, K. Similarly, Hammer and Champy have held thatReengineering the Corporation is the first truly original management booksince Adam Smith's The Wealth of Nations (Stewart, 1995). 2 ). References Daft, R. The identification of change objectivesas a subset of corporate objectives-if undertaken jointly with thedetermination of departmental objectives for finance, marketing, andproduction-will assist in the formulation of clear strategies that shouldbe both practicable and acceptable to the company as a whole. "Thecontrol mechanism is centered on the administrative tools the ... Stewart, T. (1911). No strategy can be expected to remain completelyeffective throughout the many changes that occur in the economy,organization, industry, and prevailing technologies. Osborne, D., & Gaebler, T. Thus,where re-engineering is envisioned as grand "starting over," it actuallydevolves into a series of periodic reevaluation and redesign efforts thatundercuts the vision that what is required is obliteration and recreation.Geisler (1996) pointed out that the total "revamping of a corporation isinherently unfeasible; it is more practical to use a piecemeal approachthat transforms some but not all units and processes. While government is an instrument, governance is a process. (199 ). Goad, S., & Hough, L. Because almost all re-engineering initiative were implemented from the top down, however, re-engineering achieved only short-term gains, and by 1995 was regarded ratherwidely as one more failed managerial quick-fix fad (Geisler, 1996). Hammer, M., & Champy, J. Each of the three underlying reasonsfor resistance to organizational change-insecurity, economic, andsociopsychological factors-will likely be found in all resistance tochange; however, the relative strengths of these three underlying reasonswill likely vary according to both the situation and to the individualsinvolved (Daft, 1997). The principles of scientific management. This inherent inability to commit theorganization to total redesign and transformation prevents the success" (p.74) of a re-engineering effort. 187). Government,thus, becomes a co-producer of public output, as opposed to a simpleservice provider. Niskanen, W. Integrate long-term strategic change plans with corporateplanning activities and outputs.Abolish Inertia "A firm standing still in a highly competitive market is losingground. Sustaining enthusiasm by providing new operationaldefinitions as circumstances change. A. (1993). managersinclude the level, time horizon, and types of objectives sought" (Rajagopal& Bernard, 1993, p. Additionally, the ability to identify and appreciatecorporate cultural influences and interdepartmental relationships canelevate the change function from a tactically oriented to a strategic level(Rajagopal & Bernard, 1993). 2. 5. Gerth, H. W. Change theory assumes that a change agentwill identify sources of dissatisfaction, determine the character of thefactors responsible for this dissatisfaction, formulate a planned change toaddress the problem, and then implement the planned change. In this context, the concepts of behavioral managementbecome significant. The first stage,"unfreezing," is defined as the period wherein "change agents createdissatisfaction," while "inspiring the motivation to accept some type ofchange" (goad & Hough, 1993, p. 18). H., & Mills, C. Hutt, M. Such internal organizational structures are organic incharacter. Identify the Strategic Decision-Making Hierarchy. Fortune,132(7), 162. This approach is not entirely suitable for an organizationwith highly specific and dictated mandates and missions.Lewin's Field Theory As It Applies to Change Lewin's "Field Theory" as it applies to change is reviewed as anappropriate model for the implementation of change associated withorganizational change. Wilson W. 17). Geisler (1996) observed that, as a concept, re-engineering is validbecause it calls for the reevaluation of business processes using ananalysis that questions both the need for the process and the design of theprocess. 3. The effective performance of an organization is dependentupon the effective management of conflict and change within theorganization. Ifany re-engineering process is to achieve long-term sustainable benefits foran organization, however, the process must not be implemented from the topdown. Integrate internal functions to develop and implementstrategies. Niskanen (1994), Chairman of the Cato Institute, wrotethat: "My vision of purgatory is being forced to read the whole corpus ofpublic-administration literature" (p. Interdependence and interaction are the essentialcharacteristics of effective organizations. intent.' This concept is an adaptation thatencompasses active management processes that include" the following(Rajagopal & Bernard, 1993, p. Taylor blamedmanagerial resistance. The economic threat which is implicit in organizational change issimilar for individuals at differing hierarchical levels of theorganization; however, the economic threat may be viewed in different termsat the differing hierarchical levels. The indirect approach begins with an existing strategic structure, theelements of which are analyzed to determine the feasibility of reorderingand combining these elements to produce a strategic structure that mightserve the organization better. 2. The second stage, "moving," isdefined as participant attitude and behavior changes in relation to theplanned change (Goad & Hough, 1993, p. 179-198. Contrasting Contemporary Assumptions Relative to the Management of Organizational Change With Earlier Assumptions The earlier contributors considered in this comparison are WoodrowWilson, Fredrick Taylor, Max Weber, and Mary Follett. (1995, Fall). 19). A commitment for long-term achievement, a desires "to win at alllevels, and the ability to sustain this obsession over a long period oftime is the pursuit of success with excellence. Within suchorganizations, decision making is typically top-down in character. The giving of orders. The changeagent cannot identify sources of dissatisfaction and the underlying causalfactors without performing assessing and diagnosing actions. (1995, 2 October). C.Scientific foundations of business administration. Baltimore: The Williams& Wilkins Co. Hammer and Champy in the contemporary periodand Taylor in an earlier day approached the objective as if they were the"king of the hill" who could dictate outcomes. Hilsdale, Illinois: The Dryden Press. Identify the Strategic Tools Available. customer organizations. It is revolutionary, not evolutionary, and is linked to aguiding overall vision of the re-engineered corporation (Hammer & Champy,1993). At the top, the backward mappingprocess formulates the master strategy and policies for the entireorganization. The principal elements change theory are forcefield, motivators, and stages (Goad & Hough, 1993). Phase III: Abolish or Avoid Inertia: This phase involvescommunication and implementation of the strategic objectives to and by allaffected parties.Input Analysis Phase I focuses on the need to "be continuously aware" of the internaland external environments of the organization (Rajagopal & Bernard, 1993,p. Hammer and Champy (1993) emphasized in Reengineering the Corporationthat the elimination of employees was not the primary objective of re-engineering. The mostfundamental of these concerns is the accountability of the private sectorservice providers. From these goals or objectives, policies, programs,and actions are deduced that are designed to attain the goals orobjectives. "In many cases, the role of ... Asimilar fate met Fredrick Taylor's (1911) scientific management decadesearlier, when initial successes improving efficiency were followed bydifficulties in attaining continuing improvements. Reading, Massachusetts:Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc. Operationally, strategicdevelopment might be conceived as proceeding in a progressive, step-likefashion, where successful implementation of lower level strategies isnecessary before 'higher level' strategies can be operationalized. Effective fiscal management is an essential ingredientin the successful performance of an organization. By adopting a strategic perspective, a managercan change the perception of her or his position by others in theorganization. The change agent must beespecially persuasive to effect such attitudinal and behavioral changesamong the objectors to the planned change. (1991). 4. (1997). Changes which are incorrectly perceived byindividuals within an organizational environment are more likely to meetresistance than are those changes which are fully and completely explainedby managers and administrators to the employees. Forward Mapping is compatible with both the "goals" and the "vision ofsuccess" approaches to strategy identification. 2. Amanager needs to identify existing and desired behavioral elements whenadopting the administrative tools required to achieve the desired strategicplans. 31), undoubtedly is a valid approach in some situations; however,it typically is implemented through the unacceptable approach recommendedby Hammer and Champy (1993)-from the top down and for the wrong reason-theelimination of employees. Frederick Taylor (1911) introduced the efficiency schema that gavebirth to modern industrial engineering. In the backward mapping approach,the specific behaviors or actions of the lowest-level elements of anorganization are defined. New York:Harper Bros. Lewin's change theory(is more a framework within which planned change can be developed than itis a proactive approach. AsOsborne and Gaebler (1991) viewed this process, governance involves a widespectrum of players, as opposed to being limited to public administrators,public employees, and politicians. H. to demand an unquestioned obedience to orders not approved, notperhaps even understood, is bad business policy" (p. Government, withinthis context, becomes customer-centered and market-oriented. This response became formalizedin the concept of "reinventing government," as articulated by Osborne andGaebler (1991). To executestrategic plans effectively, a manager must understand the decision-makinghierarchy existing in her or his own organization-and also "the interfacinghierarchies within ... The specific outcomes that are notoccurring are defined in change theory as the non-accomplishment of adesired job, a non-obtaining of wants and needs, and the non-achievement ofgrowth or maturation (Goad & Hough, 1993). 19): 1. Which technique is useddepends upon both the character of the individual manager and the characterof the organization. 187). Johnston (1995) observed that, in response to tax limitations andcitizen demands for higher quality services for less money, governmentadministrators increasingly began to explore the market model foralternative service delivery mechanisms. plan.Examples include resource allocation systems evaluation systems, rewardsystems, and a sanctions system to ensure disciplined management"(Rajagopal & Bernard, 1993, p. Although strictly speakingReengineering the Corporation (Hammer & Champy, 1993) is not a part of thebody of public administration literature, it certainly qualifies asdreadful reading that leaves the reader little to show for the effort oncethat task is completed. Decision-making authority isdecentralized. Should aprison inmate die as a consequence of misconduct or poor training of acorrections officer, it is easy enough to state that the correctionsofficer or the prison contractor is responsible. Government, in its steering capacity, becomes a catalystfor societal action. This determination istermed a 'strategic ... The objective is to incorporatecompetitive effectiveness into the organizational system rather than toconcentrate solely on narrow operational efficiency. This issue turns ona contention that a government cannot shift its constitutionalresponsibilities (and liabilities) to a private party. Geisler (1996) noted further that not onecorporation has managed to apply the re-engineering concept "in itstotality and in its pure form. Max Weber (1946) believed that he had developed the ideal form oforganization in bureaucracy. Organizations have an internal culture by which they aredefined, and which shapes their performance. Identify Behavioral Elements in Strategy Development. The character ofan organization's internal structure is often related to the externalenvironment within which it functions. Johnston, V. 3. (1887). 3. Fiscal goals are notviewed as the be-all and end-all of management. b. (1996, 15 April). Strategies andevaluation must be related simply because the business environment isdynamic in nature. M. N. Matiotti, J. The "moving" stage inLewin's theory is the period wherein participant attitudes and behaviorsare modified in relation to the planned change. These techniques are relevant to planning for change,implementing change, and assessing change.The Forward Mapping Process Forward mapping is a rational planning model. London: Oxford University Press. In Wilson'scase and in Wilson's time, government was able to do many things moreefficiently than were private parties. A. The directapproach also is more effective in those situations wherein there is nopreexisting vision of success for the organization. The direct approach is highly suitable for application in aturbulent environment. 5. Thesevariables alone make the formulation of all-embracing strategies adifficult task" (Rajagopal & Bernard, 1993, p. 5. 3. Using intent consistently to guide resource allocation. Three stages are structured into change theory. Further, as theorganization is designed, communication and working relationships aredetermined, authority and responsibilities assigned, policies andprocedures specified, and the purpose and contribution of the plannedchange to the firm is established and recognized. To implement an integrated change strategy within an organization,four steps are considered to be essential. Governmentwas, thus, viewed as the instrument used by society to accomplish thesegoals. The theory is referred to as "change theory" in theremainder of this review. Making such a statementstick in a court of law, however, is another question. Political ScienceQuarterly, 2, 14-26. Taylor, F. Competition-related strategies. The character of anorganization's internal structure is often related to the externalenvironment within which it functions. Integrate information with identified tasks. D., & Speh, T. Strategies designed to overcome resistance to change must consider thefactors discussed above. 47). The "refreezing" stage in theLewin change theory is the period wherein new behaviors are practiced andreinforced.Change Based in Strategic Planning Through the development of a change strategy that focuses on acompany's competitive strength, a company can enhance its market position.One study of competitive strategies suggests that the best option for agiven firm is a combination that reflects its particular circumstances(Porter, 199 ). (1993). The top-downapproach is most effective in mechanistic organizations. Phase II: Initiate Activities: This phase involves theidentification and integration of the strategic planning process. The steps involved in the backward mapping process become successivelymore policy-oriented as the strategy analysis and development processproceeds up the organizational hierarchy. The vision of success approach is based on aconception of how the organization should behave and how it should beperceived by its stakeholders. Change theory implies that the unfreezing, moving, and refreezingprocess will begin once again when dissatisfaction with the implementedchange occurs. In Metcalf, H. c. At the bottom, the forward mappingprocess states as precisely as is feasible how a satisfactory outcome willbe both defined and measured.The Backward Mapping Process Backward mapping is a bottom-up approach to the analysis anddevelopment of organizational strategy. 187). 13). Hammer's concept of top down leadership isepitomized in this statement: "Another symptom of inadequate leadership isslapping people's wrists instead of breaking their legs" (Quoted inMatiotti, 1996, p. Geisler, E. All of the contemporary theorists and all of the earlier contributorsto organizational thought considered in this essay sought increasedorganizational efficiency. Organizations functioning within adynamic external environment frequently are chaotic in character-defined asbeing much looser, free flowing, and adaptive. It is not the sum total of individually scattered continuousimprovements. Forward mapping in all of its manifestations is a top-down approach tothe analysis and development of organizational strategy. In the contemporary period in whichOsborne and Gaebler developed the reinventing government concept, privateparties are able to do many things more efficiently than government. Identify Objectives. And firms that have adopted it and haveinstituted changes in some processes and value chains now find themselvesembedded in side effects and distortions in their structure, processes, andhuman resources" (p. Integrate objectives and policies to develop an appropriatechange strategy for each organizational element. This characteristics causesthe direct approach to be most useful for organizations where no conflictexists with respect to organizational goals and objectives. Forcefield analysis also provides for a status quo wherein driving andrestraining forces are in balance. 2. The others adopted morereasoned approaches that both promised and delivered positive, lastingresults. William A. E. 4. Business Horizons, 39(5), 71-79. International Journal of Purchasing andMaterials Management, 29(4), 13-2 . New York: Harper Business. St.Paul, Minnesota: West Publishing Company. Re-engineering, or "starting over," according to Hammer and Champy(1993, p. Rather, the elimination of employees, according to Hammer andChampy (1993) was simply a outcome of the process of re-engineering. Hammer blames managerial ineptitude. 16): a. Osborne and Gaebler (1991) viewed governance as the process bysociety collectively solve its problems and meet its needs. L. Bureaucracy, ofcourse, did not prove to be ideal for all time or for all circumstances,and reengineering did not even come close, and likely will die less than adecade old. Backward mapping is compatible with both the "direct" and the"indirect" approaches to strategy analysis and development. 3. Organizations functioning within astable external environment typically have formal internal organizationalstructures with clearly established and observed operating procedures andrules, and a well defined hierarchy of authority. While the change agent is not acomponent of change theory, the change agent is necessary for the effectivefunctioning of planned change. R. Summary This research constituted the depth component of the analysis of theprinciples of societal development. The differences between the earlier contributors and thecontemporary theorists among this latter group are primarily dictated bychanging environmental conditions and imperatives. Techniques for Controlling the Change Process A number of techniques are available to the manager to enhance her orhis control of the organizational change process. 4. The direct approach essentially begins with the identification ofstrategic issues confronting an organization. It isimportant to note that finding out what government can do bestcharacterizes both approaches. By monitoring theenvironment, management should be able to identify opportunities andthreats as they develop. The essence of re-engineering is the total overhaul of anorganization. As citizens become customers and as governments separate the functionsof policy-making and service delivery, several concerns arise. The actions deduced in the forward mapping process become successivelymore detailed as the strategy analysis and development process proceedsdown the organizational hierarchy. Thehierarchical levels can be summarized as" follows (Rajagopal & Bernard,1993, p. Thistype of organizational structure is mechanistic in character. Osborne and Gaebler (1991) contend that governmentshould be responsible for outcomes, as opposed to inputs. citizens."Public Manager: The New Bureaucrat, 24(3), 11-14. Reengineering the corporation: Amanifesto for business revolution. Mostcontemporary managers understand Follett's statement. Resistance to Organizational Change In the consideration of resistance to change, and to actions requiredto overcome such resistance, it is necessary to consider the centralcharacteristics of contemporary organizations. Caveat emptor: Customers vs. Follett, M. Thevision of success approach is most useful in organizations faced with theneed for the implementation of transforming change. Business marketing management. Strangely enough the same objective motivated Osborne andGaebler, on the one hand, and Wilson, on the other hand, in the developmentof their contentions. Information gathering and processing is a keyingredient in the process of risk identification and containment, and itssignificance is reflected in the composition and flexibility of thedecision-making unit (Hutt & Speh, 1997).Initiate Activities For management to make effective decisions, it is necessary toidentify the options available. The essencehere is to create an effective long-term plan with highly motivated andcommitted staff to achieve a sustainable, competitive advantage" (Rajagopal& Bernard, 1993, p. The manager is the individual within an organizational unitwho is in a position to either ensure that an organization will be asuccessful performer, or undermine any potential for successfulperformance. To be effective,however, strategies must retain their core identity and be "alteredradically only when major changes dictate a total reevaluation. (5thed.). Identify the Organizational Structure to Facilitate StrategyDevelopment. "If a proactive approach toplanning is adopted, then the success of strategies will depend on theavailability of concise, accurate, and up-to-date information, relevant tothe buying firm and its ... The lower level employee may worryover the possibility of being replaced by a machine, while the manager oradministrator may be worried over the potential for redundancy resultingfrom a consolidation of managerial or administrative functions (Daft,1997). managermust identify for successful implementation of a strategic ... 13). Theory-directed nursing practice. Re-engineering as a practical concept,thus, is inherently flawed. ... Backward mapping in all of its manifestations is a bottom-up approachto the analysis and development of organizational strategy. Hammer apparentlydoes not.
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