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ISLAMIC SOCIETIES & WORLD ORDER.
Term Paper ID:26254
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Examines ways Islamic countries can add to security & peace of world. Obstacles, religious divisions, economics, politics, spirituality, war, fundamentalism, public vs. private sectors, banking, difference with West.... More...
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Paper Abstract:
Examines ways Islamic countries can add to security & peace of world. Obstacles, religious divisions, economics, politics, spirituality, war, fundamentalism, public vs. private sectors, banking, difference with West.
Paper Introduction:
HOW ISLAMIC SOCIETIES IN THE MIDDLE EAST CAN CONTRIBUTE TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF A BETTER WORLD ORDER
Introduction
This research addresses the issue of how Islamic societies in the Middle East can contribute to a better world order. There are two major facets to this issue. The first facet of the issue concerns the character of any contribution that the Islamic societies of the Middle East can make to a better world order. The second facet of the issue revolves around the obstacles that the Islamic societies in the Middle East must overcome before they can make a contribution to a better world order. The findings of this research are presented within a framework of these two major facets of the overall issue of how Islamic societies in the Middle East can contribute to a better w
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[38]Fuller and Lesser, 3. Islamic economics has been described as having two principalcomponents. Fuller and I. War should be obsolete just like slavery! The only hope is a massive education campaign of the public who as voters remain the final arbiters at the end of the day. [67]P. To many Muslims in the Middle East, itappears that the West, and the United States especially, is determined toimpose a Western value system on Islamic societies, regardless of thedesires of the Islamic societies. [49]J. [29]Sadiki, 4. Hiro, Holy wars: The Rise of Islamic Fundamentalism (New York:Routledge Publishing Co., 199 ), 24. He contends further thata prime function of such a new global order would be to balance the North'sever-growing scramble for profits, markets and military superiority withthe demands of various peoples in the South for political, cultural,economic, spiritual, and environmental relevance and self-determination.In Sadiki's view, the Islamic societies of the Middle East are in aposition to make a significant contribution toward the development of a newglobal order that meet the prime function of dealing effectively andequitably with North-South issues.[26] Sadiki points out that, in the wake of the end of the Cold War era,bipolarity has been replaced by unipolarity. [62]C. [8 ]Fakhro, 1. Communism addressed this issue by crushing the individual infavor of society. Ahady, "Islamic Fundamentalism," Journal of Asian andAfrican Studies 27 (July-October 1992): 23 . New York: Routledge Publishing Co., 199 .Huntington, S. "Continuous increases in armaments and violence do not bodewell for the proclaimed peace of the embattled New World Order."[31]Western powers, especially the United States, are the largest suppliers ofarmaments. N. Laffin, Holy War: Islam Fights (London: Grafton Books, 1988),111. The welfareof the whole of the human race according to the will of God is the ultimategoal of all Islamic economic activity. It can readily be seen that negotiations as to loansize and proportional profit sharing will be quite different from those oflenders and borrowers in the United States. God, as the Creator, is the ultimate owners of everything inthe universe. The principal outlines of the current secular versus fundamentalist struggle are between a nationalist-secularist middle class in- group and various less privileged out-groups that are effectively using religious symbolism and slogans to mobilize a popular challenge to central state authority.[67] The challenge to secularism in Middle Eastern Islamic societies isnot, according to Salem, intellectual. [47]Huntington, 26. He stresses that such moderates must haveaccess to governmental decision-making processes if peaceful reform is tooccur. London: Allyn & Unwin, Ltd., 1993.Victor, J. The Islamic political system derives its legitimacyfrom the mandate of Allah, as opposed to deriving it from those governed.Thus, in accordance with the tenets of Islam, unity of political action isrequired, as opposed to the fostering of individual political expressionwhich is implicit in many western models of political development. No doubt the changes experienced by NGOs in the Middle East since 198 were largely due to some political, economic and social changes, including the increasing spread of education for women, an evolution of democratic ideals, some economic reform policies- but also to wars, national internal strife, privatization, a cutback of general governmental spending on social policies, the rise in the population below the poverty line, marginalization of some social groups, the general increase in population and consequently, rising needs ....[8 ] The NGO phenomenon in Middle East countries has "spread mainly amongthe villages and to the poorest strata of society. Voll notes that: "Greatnetworks of intellectual and ideological exchange are transforming the veryfoundations of the worldviews of political Islam in its many differentforms."[76] Dekmejian points out the prevalence of moderate groups (which at timesresort to violence when excluded from electoral participation), in MiddleEastern Islamic societies. "Their logic is obvious. Simons, Libya: The Struggle for Survival (London: Allyn &Unwin, Ltd., 1993), 93. [33]Sadiki, 1 . Piscatori, (Ed.), Islamic Fundamentalism and the Gulf crisis(Chicago: Fundamentalist Project, American Academy of Arts and Sciences,1991), 26. "Islam & Christianity Face to Face: An Old Conflict & Prospects for A New Ending." Commonweal 124 (January 1997): 11-16.Esposito, J. People who are easily willing to die for their god are much more dangerous than are people who want to live to create a utopian future.[61] Conventional wisdom holds that Islamic Fundamentalism draws it supportfrom the poverty stricken in Islamic societies. San Francisco: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1991.Sadiki, L. Plainfield, Indiana: The Association of Muslim Social Scientists, 1991.Kramer, M. Only indirectly, throughthe medium of non-political organizations and institutions, can politicaland social change be channeled."[66] Arab nationalism has not been founded always on the concept ofresistance to Western dominance or imperialism. The events in Bosnia seemed to confirm fears that theveneer of ideology that characterized the Cold War years was only a maskhiding deeper religious identities, ambitions and prejudices. Huntington, "The Clash of Civilizations?" Foreign Affairs 72(Summer 1993): 22. [17]D. The second facet of the issue revolves around theobstacles that the Islamic societies in the Middle East must overcomebefore they can make a contribution to a better world order. "The Rise and Fall of Secularism in the Arab World." Middle East Policy 4 (March 1996): 147-16 .Sayeed, S. The partial transformation of the struggle in this direction began in the late 197 s. [58]Lawrence, 1 . Different branches of Islam,however, often view society through different glasses. The most important obstacles that must beovercome are those that divide Islamic societies of the Middle East fromone another. "Andyet, this is not the worst about the submissive and unsuspecting nature ofthe people in the West. E., and Lesser, I. Thereare other Islamic principles, however, that cause truly Islamic economiesto function differently from capitalist economies. [69]Salem, 157. There is noguarantee, however, that the Islamic societies of the Middle East canovercome the obstacles that divide them from one another. The Islamic fundamentalists, who tend to be puritanical andrevolutionary in their religiopolitical orientation, desire to establish an"Islamic state" based on the rigorous implementation of the Sharia.Traditionalists, who are often Islamic scholars, pursue a goal ofconserving the Islamic laws and customs practiced in the classical andmedieval periods of Islam. [34]E. A constant set of principles derived from the Qur`an are theeconomic principles governing all Islamic activity, and the principles areunchanging. According to Huntington, fundamentalist movements "are found inWestern Christianity, Judaism, Buddhism and Hinduism, as well as in Islam.In most countries and most religions the people active in fundamentalistmovements are young, college-educated, middle-class technicians,professionals and business persons."[47] Future international conflicts,according to Huntington will be "a direct result of the cultural, historic,ethnic and religious differences that make civilizations unique.Westerners erroneously assume that other civilizations can and will embraceindividualism and democracy, but Confucian, Islamic, Japanese Hindu andother groups do not view the Western outlook as desirable. Thispotential contribution has relevance for self-determination which is inessence a democratic norm. L. Theassumption by both communism and capitalism that an inevitable conflictexists between individual and society does not exist in Islam where thepremise is an equilibrium between both and a delicate balance that keepseverybody happy. [3]"The New World Order," 2. The other contributors to the work, however, splitalong the lines of (1) holding that religious actors function as mediatorsof conflict or (2) that religion frequently is a divisive factor that isthe cause of conflict. [32]Sadiki, 9. [52]B. It is also a pity to see them staying the ominous course and leading humanity so close to the edge of the abyss. "The Lure of Fundamentalism." NRC Handelsblad, Rotterdam, Netherlands, (2 September 1996): 4.Dekmejian, R. Firstly, Arabs, like many other peoples, yet againfind themselves on the periphery of such an order. One result of this capitalist emphasis is the cyclicalrecurrence of significant problems-inflation, unemployment, and recession,while a second result is an increasing concentration of productive capacityownership into a relatively private hands. Islamic fundamentalists, as is true of Christianfundamentalists in the United States, tend to view all issues in black andwhite terms-all that they believe in is white-good, and all that othersbelieve in is black-evil.[58] Of supreme importance in the Islamic concept of political developmentis the unity of the secular and the religious. A similar statement may be made in relation toChristian fundamentalists.Obstacles That Divide Islamic Societies in the Middle East From One Another Islamic Fundamentalism is a movement whose aim is to return Islamicsociety and religion to essential and traditional Islamic values, as thosevalues are understood, interpreted, and enunciated by the adherents ofIslamic Fundamentalism. In the past, Arabsocieties have developed movements, such as Baathism, that reflectedidentity struggles within sub-cultures of Arab groups throughout the MiddleEast and Africa. The issues of political legitimacy,authority, national identity, and democracy are not entirely unrelated.Nowhere are such linkages more pronounced than in the Middle East and NorthAfrica, where Islamic revivalism has dramatically shaped the politicaldiscourse. A. (Ed.). In Islam, all members of a society are expected tocontribute to the common good. The rightof non Moslems to practice their religions is protected by law in Libya.Libya has resisted the militant Islamic fundamentalist influence that hascaused such extensive social and political disruption in neighboringAlgeria. L. And theirvision seems to have been largely informed by what feminists have referredto as 'militarized masculinity,' with its emphasis on violence as theprimary means of ensuring order."[33] Muslim concern with cultural relevance in the context of the New WorldOrder is substantial. The most significant struggle likely in the near future isnot likely to be between the entrenched middle classes and the variouslower-middle and lower classes, but rather between the "middle classesthemselves and the narrow military, party, royal or (in some cases)religious elites that monopolize the highest echelons of power in Arabstates."[69] 2. S. Political and social out-groups are using political Islam to pose the most serious challenge to Arab regimes since Arab nationalist revolutionaries toppled the upper- class regimes of Egypt, Syria, Iraq and other Arab countries in the wake of World War II and the loss of Palestine. Fakhro, "Civil Society And Non-Governmental Organizations InThe Middle East: Reflections On The Gulf," Part 1 of 2, ContemporaryWomen's Issues Database, 9 (January 1997): 1. This overkill not only targeted the resources but even the Third World as the vital market and the sacred cow.[1] To make such outcomes even worse, capitalism recognizes massive globalcorporations as individuals. The labelsof East and West are reverting to their pre-Bolshevik-Revolutionconnotations of Christian West and Muslim East."[71] Such an outcomeappears to Muslims in the Middle East to be being reinforced by a rise inright-wing politics in both Western Europe and the United States. On theaffluent side of humanity, and with the same goal of making more money tomake the rich richer, to enhance their consumeristic patterns, increasetheir luxuries, and indulge in their pleasures, the industrialized nationsare violating, poisoning, polluting, and killing the environment. Contemporary Women's Issues Database 9 (January 1997): 1-4.Fuller, G. Chicago: Fundamentalist Project, American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1991.Qutb, M. The West is "no longerproviding alternative ideological formulations, and appears to many in theArab public increasingly as a monolithic, dominant, Christian andaggressive entity. Cairo: Cairo University, 1993.Arberry, A. [74]S. (Boulder, Colorado: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1997),231. 3. R. B. [48]Huntington, 22. The persistence of Western direct and indirect support ofauthoritarianism in the Islamic countries of the Middle East betrays thedemocratic claims and practices of the "guardians of the New WorldOrder."[3 ] The West, especially the United States, will not tolerate thefall or overthrow of friendly Arab regimes, especially those sitting onvast oil reserves, regardless of their lack of democracy and regardless oftheir record on human rights. Bankers arealso permitted, in Islam, to charge fees for specific services, includingthe deposit and safekeeping of valuables, the transfer of funds, theprovision of consultative or advisory services, and the purchase or sale ofsecurities for account holders.[25] Interest is not charged by banking institutions within many Islamicsocieties in the Middle East, and it is illegal for private parties tonegotiate agreements providing for the payment of interest. Thus, the provider of money is able to share in profits, butmust also share in losses. "The function of Islamic society is tofulfill the divine will, not through the activity of the community or theorganizations and institutions within it, but through each individualunderstanding his duties."[17] The goal of Islamic development is topromote growth in human life in "all directions, to the maximum extentpossible whether for the individual or society."[18] Islamic developmentis expected to occur in stages. Recent analyses have found, however, that educated peoplesupport fundamental Islamic Fundamentalist governments "because they desirepower and wealth."[62] Further, this research found that many of theeducated people in Islamic societies support Islamic Fundamentalist groupsagainst sitting governments when they are unable to obtain good jobs inspite of their educational qualifications. Political Islam: Revolution, Radicalism, or Reform? Esposito and J. [7]"The New World Order," 3. "Political Science: Development and the Internal Dynamics of the Muslim State." In Islam and Development 4th ed. "Weborrow from the future at an extravagant rate, whereas sane and reasonableestimates tell us that we are incurring a debt our future generations willnot be able to pay. Thus, in many countries,both the Islamic fundamentalists within a country, and that country'sIslamic government can both claim with confidence that they adhere toIslamic political principles and concepts (as occurs in Saudi Arabia),although the processes of political change employed by the two differmarkedly.[57] The rising tide of Islamic Fundamentalism, led by the successors ofthe Ayatollah Khomeini in Iran, tend to pit Muslim against Muslim incountries such as Egypt. 2. Where the interpretation of Islamic values differs widely,however, factions may develop because the different Islamic groups view theother as illegitimate. [28]Sadiki, 3. Rather, what is required is a change of heart. [4 ]Fuller and Lesser, 2. As long as the prevailing thinking goes in terms of we versus them, North versus South, exploiter versus exploited, rich versus poor, white versus coloured and masters versus slaves (at least servants) there is no hope in the future. [46]Huntington, 22. Global Islamic Politics. A flexible set of principles derived from the Qur`an maybe adapted to environment, time, or place, while remaining within theboundaries of the unchanging principles. Thesefeatures are not a copy of formulas that might have served well in previoustimes and circumstances. Esposito observed that in the 199 s: Islamic revivalism has developed from small radical groups or organizations on the periphery of society to a significant part of mainstream Muslim society. Capitalism on the other hand extolled individuality and overprotected it from the claims of society. O. A. The collapse of the Soviet Union has changed the perceptionsof West in Islamic societies in the Middle East. The course of social and scientific thinking in the Arab world has come too far for such a turning. N. Any real sense of justice for minorities such asthe Kurds or Palestinians are blocked by the West. The open proclamations of the worldliness and universalityof the New World Order contradict its hidden ethnocentric and racistunderpinnings. http://www.unn.ac.uk/societies/islamic/about/current/neworder.htm [2]"The New World Order," 2. M. Religious Muslims who do not accept fundamentalist prescriptions can thus be regarded as being 'traitors.' I expect to see Islamic Fundamentalism spread across the Islamic world, and I believe that it will become a much greater threat to world peace than communist militancy ever was. These corporations in the contemporary periodare using the capitalist system as a tool to usurp sovereignty from bothnations and societies. Some modernists assume that Islamic war ethics are theoreticaland cannot hold in the modern age. Sadiki, "Al-la Nidam: An Arab View of the New World(Dis)Order," Arab Studies Quarterly (ASQ) 17 (June 1995): 1. According to Salem, two possibilities exist. To manywesterners, particularly Americans, such arrangements are not desirable.Such arrangements mean a sharing of risks-if the venture fails, the lendertypically has no further recourse against the borrower beyond the limits ofthe agreement. To be sure, a political success of the fundamentalists will have immediate and serious consequences for the currently secular intelligentsia. Islamic Fundamentalism is a phenomenon that shows no signs ofdiminishing. [64]Fakhro, 4. The findingsof this research are presented within a framework of these two major facetsof the overall issue of how Islamic societies in the Middle East cancontribute to a better world order. When local markets are fully saturated new ones are sought overseas and in the Third World. New York: Oxford University Press, 1995.Esposito, J. As the peace process confirms the end of the struggle between the Arab nationalist states and the state of Israel, the struggle may gradually be re-expressed as an equally tenacious and perhaps more dangerous struggle, not between the Arabs and Israel (both parties being defined in secular nationalist terms), but between Muslims and Jews. In fact, Fuller and Lesserproclaim that: "The West has now become one of the primary laboratories forrapid, virtually 'forced' Islamic evolution."[42] These assumptions arenot only chauvinistic, they also belie the argument made by Fuller andLesser that neither the West nor Islam exist. What they are even slower to grasp is that thevoracious appetite of capital and its greedy practice in the Third World isnot confined to those far and away places inhabited by those strange andexotic people, but they would not flinch from doing the same at home and toown citizens whenever prompted by the dictates of that sacred principle:growth and more growth, capital and more capital, dollars and moredollars!"[2] Islam does not believe that a change of rules will correct thesituation. Libya: The Struggle for Survival. One problem with all of the contributors to thiswork, including Johnston and Sampson, is that they overwhelmingly tend toequate religion and Christianity, with short shrift given to otherreligions, especially so in the role of conflict mediators. [39]Fuller and Lesser, 1-2. L. Islamdoes permit and encourage individual differences in most aspects of life.Political factionalism, however, is not permitted. Plainfield, Indiana: The Association of Muslim Social Scientists, 1992.Roberts, D. O. New York: Harper Collins College Publishers, 1995.Johnston, D., and Sampson, C. He contends that unipolarity,currently in the form of the United States, is an undesirable basis for anew global order based on equity.[27] For many Muslims in the Middle East, "the West's notion of world orderleaves much to be desired. S. Further, the United States provides these arms on a selectivebasis in the Middle East and attempts to crush those Islamic states that itopposes. Salem, "The Rise and Fall of Secularism in the Arab World,"Middle East Policy 4 (March 1996): 153. Viewed inthis context, the Islamic fundamentalists see it as their Holy duty tobring the government down. U. S. http://www.unn.ac.uk/ societies/islamic/about/current/neworder.htmPiscatori, J. el Araby, Islam and Economy (Cairo: Cairo University, 1993),76. P. Arab-Israeli struggle, fought under the banner of Arab nationalism, which shaped Arab consciousness and provided the ideological raison d'etre for many Arab regimes, may in the long run have a corrosive effect on the secular nationalist regimes that waged that struggle and the outlooks that fed it. Western governments, their protege Arab regimes, and Israel areall accused of forming an anti-Islamic power triangle.[35]The Nature of Potential Contributions to a Better World Order By IslamicSocieties of the Middle East Emphasizing the importance of democratic values and procedures forstate-society relations and state-state relations is a major contributionto a better world order that may be made by Islamic societies of the MiddleEast. These components are as follows:[19] 1. In Islam, this assumption of an equity position by a provider of fundsis referred to as modaarbah, or joint enterprise. He concludes that Islamists in power would face substantialobstacles in trying to establish "a viable political community."[77] Amajor problem in this context, according to Dekmejian, is the Islamicpotential "for both liberalism and totalitarian autocracy."[78] Fakhro reported that organizations of civil society in the Middle Eastare "today playing growing roles in the political sector of a number ofcountries" in the Middle East.[79] Fakhro also reported that professionalassociations and organized interests groups in Middle East countries, whichare primarily non-partisan, are becoming increasingly politicized. It is a revitalization movement aimed at restoring the lost glory of Islamic culture. The challenge, rather, is of a decidedly political nature. In Saudi Arabia the Mufti (the highestreligious authority) released a fatwa in June, 1996, ... [45]Fuller and Lesser, 74. God, not man is the Supreme Being of the universe. On the other hand, the dismantling of the ... [43]Fuller and Lesser, 43. Thispotential contribution also has relevance for the United Nations andgenuine representation and operation for all societies and nations withinthe United Nations. Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press, 1995.Esposito, J. It is farfetched to believe that the politicians and the financiers of the world will have the vision, wisdom and ability to undergo this dramatic self-change. With the gigantic media machine, owned by large corporations and bigcapital in the West, designed to manipulate and shape public thinking, themasses in the West have so far been easy to swallow the bait and,unsuspectingly, sanction the means and ways of their policy makers. It isthe kind of arrogance that finds expression in jingoism. "Forecasting the Future of Religion: The Next5 Years," Humanist 56 (May-June 1996): 22. A. "Forecasting the Future of Religion: The Next 5 Years." Humanist 56 (May-June 1996), 2 -22.----------------------- [1]"The New World Order," (1998): 1. The Prophetsaid that merchants "are the messengers of this world and God's faithfultrustees on earth."[22] The Qur`an also accepts the concept of privateproperty and the existence of different levels of wealth and wages. [55]Piscatori, 27. Thus, the Islamic government in Iran conspires to underminegovernments in all other Islamic countries who oppose it.[54] A favored way of attacking opposing governments is by operatingthrough Shi'a population minorities in other Islamic countries. The issue isnot between Christianity and Islam."[38] This assertion is justified bytheir argument holding "there is no Islam that can be treated as a single,cohesive, coherent, comprehensive, monolithic entity .... The point, however, is that the real battle is being fought in the political, not the intellectual, arena. [13]Arberry, (Translator), 2 4-2 5. [18]M. Islam holds that politicalstability within an Islamic state derives from the ideologicalincorporation of Islamic values into the political system. According to this analysis, Arabs are leftvulnerable to external threats to their water and oil resources, and remaindivested of any bargaining power with regard to the resolution of the Arab-Israeli conflict."[32] 4. Thus, they proclaim that in thecontemporary world there is "no 'Islam' and there is no 'West.'"[36]According to Fuller and Lesser, Islam is both in and of the West, as theWest is in and of Islam. The efforts of women'sassociations have been limited in reforming laws governing women andestablishing progress in equality of the sexes. There are two majorfacets to this issue. This scenario has led to what the Middle Eastern Muslimsperceive as a "kind of Nintendo war that Arab analysts believe has left theArab World at a critical three-way disadvantage. The applications of the principles of any system-capitalism, socialism, or Islamic-are usually less than perfect.Therefore, conflicts do occur within Islamic economic systems; however, inIslam such conflicts are settled on the basis of the greater societal good,as opposed to settlement on an ideological basis, as is most often true inboth capitalist and socialist economies.[21] The Qur`an and Islamic tradition look with favor on trade andproduction and on the profits earned from such activities. [72]G. "Islamic Fundamentalism." Journal of Asian and African Studies 27 (July-October 1992): 229-243.el Araby, M. Another rule in Islam is that money as an instrument cannotbreed money unless coupled to some kind of production, hence usury(interest) is unlawful in Islam. L. Secularism in government is under serious attack in the Islamicsocieties of the Middle East. [6]"The New World Order," 3. [14]M. [37]S. For the Islamicfundamentalist, this tenet is often interpreted to mean that a government,such as that in Libya, which is not clerical, is illegitimate. "Civil Society And Non-Governmental Organizations In The Middle East: Reflections On The Gulf." Part 1 of 2. But when he prevails, he goes about the earthspreading mischief and destroying tilth and progeny; and God loves-notmischief."[13] Husain contends that "the Muslim world is not experiencing thehomogenous and monolithic Islamic revival necessary to help make it aninternational power bloc."[14] To support this contention, he cited theconflicts between Islamic fundamentalists, traditionalists, modernists, andpragmatists. O. Hassan, "The New World Order and the Islamic World," Journalof Islamic Social Sciences 8 (March 1991): 465. R. The circumstances, resources, and societal values among many ofthese countries tend to vary widely. [23]J. H. ed. Although condemned in the Christian Bible, the concept ofinterest gradually came to be widely accepted in capitalist countries.Islamic economists, however, believe that the elimination of interest leadsto increases in both employment and productivity, as the practice is seento encourage laziness, discourage community involvement, and encourageexploitation of the many by the few.[24] The charging of interest is avoided by Islamic banks through theassumption of an equity interest in an enterprise to which funds areprovided. is something akin to the Protestant Reformation. In socialist economies, the greater is the emphasis on theprimacy of the public sector, the greater are the risks of impairedproductivity as a result of depressed initiative and incentive. The social responsibilities ofbusiness organizations are part of the moral obligations of the individualsoperating such organizations in an Islamic society.[2 ] All economic systems are concerned with the relationship between thepublic and private sectors. Karachi, Pakistan: Royal Book Co., 199 .Siddiqui, M. Islam will neverconstitute a single entity ...."[39] Continuing this line of reasoning,Fuller and Lesser contend further that the "concept of the West is at leastas diverse" as is that of Islam.[4 ] Fuller and Lesser suggest that the large numbers of Muslims nowresiding in the Western societies of Europe and North America maycontribute to political moderation in the Middle East and, for Islam, "mayhasten its move toward a process similar to the Christian Reformation."[41] It is interesting to note the chauvinism of Fuller and Lesser in theirassumptions that the West will influence Islam to change; not that Islamicvalues will influence the West to change. A. These organizations were established in some of the Arab countries at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 2 th-but relatively late in the Gulf states, in the mid-195 s. If a demand is created for a new way then the politicians will either change or have to get out of the way of change.[3] Islamic scholars and thinkers have for several decades been sketchingthe features of an Islamic system based on the Islamic Shari'a. In the context of returning a society and areligion to the essential and traditional values as those values areunderstood, interpreted, and enunciated by one faction within a society,Islamic Fundamentalism is similar to Christian fundamentalism in the UnitedStates, Orthodox Judaism in Israel, and Hindu fundamentalism in India, asall these fundamentalist groups see themselves as the only true defendersof God against secular modernism.[52] The rise of Islamic Fundamentalism in the contemporary world can betraced to the success of the Islamic Revolution in Iran. "The New World Order and the Islamic World." Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 8 (March 1991): 46 -475.Hiro, D. [24]S. Muslims andothers, however, look at the issue from another perspective. [25]M. [31]Sadiki, 8. He holds further, however,that the future of secularism in the Middle Eastern Islamic countries isdependent upon factors other than regime durability or fragility. O. S. [41]Fuller and Lesser, 88. This 'quiet revolution' has produced a new class of modern, educated, but Islamically oriented elites and organizations that exist alongside their secular counterparts. While Islamists reject the Westernization and secularization ofsociety, modernization through science and technology is accepted."[51] Islamic fundamentalists desire the elimination of all dissent to theirviews of the world. A Sense of Siege: The Geopolitics of Islam and the West. God is always in the equation and is a living reality inIslam, which is "a notion of absolute meaninglessness in a materialisticideology."[7] This philosophy is achievable and attainable, but "not undera value free educational system, the tidal wave of media indoctrination, ora society tolerant of injustices. Islamic Fundamentalism and the Gulf crisis. Lawrence, Defenders of God: The Fundamentalist RevoltAgainst the Modern Age (San Francisco: Harper & Row, 199 ), 3. Although the Qur`an provides guidelines for the processes of politicalchange, these guidelines are not uniformly interpreted. This potential contribution has relevance for minorities, genderrelations, civil society, governance, and power (as this contributionpresupposes a positive sum game as distinct from a zero sum game). Rvsd. These principles are asfollows:[23] 1. The Shi'a branch of Islam is dominant in Iran, although it is aminority Islamic sect outside of Iran. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1995.Hassan, E. The ship of humanity will sink even while the passengers in deluxe and first class cabins further amass more valuables and luxuries. [79]M. The revolution has,however, wrought significant political and social changes within Iran,whether or not it has lived up to all its promises.[53] The Iranian revolution, however, is significant beyond the borders ofIran. Western governments certainly appear to condone thecrackdown. Instability inIslamic states is attributed by Islamic scholars, particularly Islamicfundamentalist scholars, to the failure of Muslim elites "to drawinspiration from Islam for political development ...."[59] In thiscontext, some blame for political instability is attached to efforts by theelites in some Islamic countries to introduce "western ideologies ofsecularism, democracy, socialism and nationalism ...."[6 ] It is contendedthat, without Islamic values as an ideological basis, these concepts willfail in Islamic countries. Thus, far Qadhafi has successfully resistedsuch efforts.[75] In the last quarter of the twentieth century, democratization,liberalization and human rights have become the cornerstone of the globaldebate. Holy War: Islam Fights. Z. Since modernwarfare is so devastating, then war itself should cease to be an option inconflict resolution. Distributing justice for the dispossessed and aggrieved peoplesprovided through peaceful means is a second major potential contribution toa better world order by the Islamic societies of the Middle East. They believe in rigid adherence to certainrulings compiled during Islam's medieval time. ... Arberry, (Translator), Translation of the Qur`an (New York:Macmillan, 1974), 49. [22]A. condemning working women and any woman who interacts with men not of her family as a temptation that might lead to loose morals and adultery. Z. [4]"The New World Order," 2. If this contention werecorrect, however, one would not expect an outpouring of support from theeconomically privileged students in universities in Islamic societies,although some support could be anticipated for this reason from altruisticstudents. "WithoutGod everything becomes possible and anything can be rationalized andjustified. San Francisco: Harper & Row, 199 .al Masryn, S. They note theemergence of "a global Islamist perspective" but point to the diversity ofideas, "even among allies."[49] Johnston and Sampson contend that various conflicts in the world arebeing reconciled, often by religious agents and agencies, in ways that arenot being recognized. The IslamicRevolution in Iran occurred in 1979, and in the intervening 19 years, muchof the promise of the revolution for Iran has faded. Tobe able to make such contributions, however, these societies must overcomeobstacles that separate Islam from the West and obstacles that divide thesocieties among themselves. Within this context, they statedthat: "Today Muslims see themselves on the run all over the world. [77]R. The Arab term al-la nidam conveysabsence of order and imparts the idea of al-fawda (disorder, chaos). On the one hand, the ending of the state of war and promotion of socio-economic development may help ease Arab political tensions and pull the rug from under radical revolutionary movements, such as the fundamentalist, and hence strengthen secular groups. [73]A. 2. The Modernists, also knownas adaptionists, advocate the reconciliation of traditional religiousdoctrine with secular scientific rationalism. [27]Sadiki, 1. TheWest is seen to be comfortable only with a supine Muslim world."[43] Although Fuller and Lesser reject the concept of a clash between Islamand the West and even state that Islamic and Western civilizations nolonger exist, they nevertheless predict continued clashes between these twononexistent civilizations. [66]Fakhro, 4. Religion: The Missing Dimension of Statecraft. Societies, not only states, should be involved in theUnited Nations. "The Clash of Civilizations?" Foreign Affairs 72 (Summer 1993): 22-49.Husain, M. The loaning ofmoney does occur within the these economies; however, the lender is notcompensated through the payment of interest. These two sets of obstacles are addressed in thefollowing discussions.Obstacles That Distance Islam From Western Societies Fuller and Lesser contend that homogeneous and organically distinct"civilizations" such as Islamic civilization and Western civilization nolonger are present in the world. Voll, Islam and Democracy (New York:Oxford University Press, 1996), 235-236. Muslimsare convinced that Western policies are consciously dedicated to weakeningMuslim power wherever it arises. 2. Strength of and impartiality by the UnitedNations are essential if justice is to prevail. To the extent that pressuresfor greater popular participation have fostered the, Islamic revival, theanswer is in the affirmative. [71]Salem, 159. Arab Awakening and Islamic Revival: The Politics and Ideas of the Middle East. That imbued the individual with justifiable selfishness, and when this was projected outward its various expressions were classism, corporatism, nationalism, racism, slavery and colonialism. Human ownership is of a second level character. There is obvious (perhaps willful) blindness to the fact that it is impossible to attain infinite growth on a finite planet. [16]Husain, 162. Obstacles that Islamic Societies in the Middle East Must Overcome Before They Can Make A Contribution to A Better World Order Two major sets of obstacles must be overcome by the Islamic societiesof the Middle East if they are to be able to make meaningful contributionsto a better world order. Such an idea was summarily scoffed at in a (philanthropic)meeting of former ministers and prime ministers from various countries thatwas held in Europe. In the feverish race for dollars and more dollars coupled with the planned and active encouragement of patterns of consumerism and planned obsolescence - not to satisfy needs but rather to satisfy comforts, pleasures, and luxuries, natural resources, many irreplaceable, are violated at an accelerating pace. Thus, each opposing faction tends to consideritself as the true defender of the Islamic faith, as opposed to being justanother faction.[73] Identity in fully Islamic political systems is derived on the basis ofa universal faith. L. Even the concept ofArabism, which developed during the 19th century in response to Ottomanrule, was not true nationalism because Arabs and their Turkish rulersshared a dedication to Islam. Islam and Economy. Neither the stoppage of subsidy nor the developing ofthe Third World were considered a live option, the former for politicalexpediency and the latter as political strategy."[9] 3. The political leadership in monarchies such as Kuwait andSaudi Arabia, the dictators in such countries as Iraq and Libya, and themore moderate politicians in countries such as Egypt all have reason to beconcerned about the growing strength of Islamic Fundamentalism. The first principle is a prohibition against marketspeculation. Kuwait City: Government of Kuwait, 1993."The New World Order." (1998): 1-7. Husain, Global Islamic Politics (New York: Harper CollinsCollege Publishers, 1995), 25. These two sets of obstacles are (1) those thattend to distance Islam from Western societies and (2) those that tend todivide Islamic societies. As long as the good old mentality of materialism reigns there is no hope except for a little symptomatic treatment that might delay the inevitable for a brief time but will not prevent it. O. The Islamic fundamentalist outlook, however, is appealing to manyLibyans.[72] In Islamic countries, where the Qur`an prohibits politicalfactionalism, it is not uncommon to find what are essentially one-partystates. A. A. At first glance, many observers see the rise of political Islamas part of revolutionary and populist politics. Lahore, Pakistan: Islamic Publications, Limited, 1991.Simons, G. New York: Oxford University Press, 1994.Khan, Z. [6 ]Khan, 52. What causes this procedure to be different from the chargingof interest is, first, the sharing of losses as well as profits, and,second, the absence of an absolute monetary share on either the profit orloss. Siddiqui, Banking Without Interest (Lahore, Pakistan:Islamic Publications, Limited, 1991), 1 3. Islamic Banking. [63]Fakhro, 3. Society is so intercomplementary andintegrated that nobody is allowed to live in isolation, either at the epicof riches or at the nadir of poverty."[8] In Islam the premise is that Godremitted the sustenance of the poor in the wealth of the rich, and, in anew world order, the principle may be carried over to internationalproportions. Translation of the Qur`an. In Kuwait, the Islamic Bloc in the Parliament issued an amendment for the segregation of the sexes in higher education; this amendment was passed as a bill in July, 1996.[63] In 199 , the government of Bahrain proclaimed legislation limiting therole of all associations, including women's associations. L. [7 ]Salem, 159. There has not been, however, anything that has unifiedall Arabs under the banner of self-determination because political andsocial differences among the 2 million Arabic-speaking people have beentoo significant to create one nationalistic objective. A. TheArab perspective tends toward disowning the 'New World Order' for twointerconnected reasons. L., and Voll, J. New York: Macmillan, 1974.De Gruyter, C. The principal features of this system are asfollows:[4] 1. It is fairly accurate to say that the majority of the intelligentsia in the Arab world along with the majority of the military, bureaucratic and professional middle class that controls most of the levers of power in the Arab world still share a fairly secular worldview constructed around various nationalist formulations. M. But if it compliesthen make peace with justice and be fair, for God loves those who arefair."[1 ] Alliance between Muslims and non-Muslims for a just cause isacceptable. BibliographyAhady, A. It is the ideological effectiveness of this worldview as a tool for political mobilization that has been eclipsed by the religious-traditionalist worldview. "It has beenestimated that the subsidy Europe pays to its farmers is enough to causesuch a turn around in the Third World as to eliminate the problem of hungerthe world over. Khan, "Political Science: Development and the InternalDynamics of the Muslim State," In Islam and Development 4th ed.(Plainfield, Indiana: The Association of Muslim Social Scientists, 1991),52. Nor are these features to be consideredexclusively Islamic or strictly prescribed to Muslims, as the welfare ofhumanity is a common concern and with our ever-shrinking interactive globewe all face the same destiny. Alliance to stopaggression is expressed in Quranic verse as follows: "If two parties amongthe believers fall into a fight, make you peace between them: but if one ofthem transgresses against the other, then fight (all) against the one thattransgresses until it complies with the command of God. London: Grafton Books, 1988.Lawrence, B. Suchassociations cut across the entire social and cultural spectrum of acountry. Women in the Gulf states are faced with conservative politico-religious groups that call for their confinement at home, their segregationin higher education, and their resignation from jobs. S. Lesser, A Sense of Siege: The Geopoliticsof Islam and the West (Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1995), 1. "The second Gulf War has not only heralded a new stage of uncertaintyin the Middle East, but has also acted as a harbinger of trendsantithetical to the highly-principled proclamations associated with the NewWorld Order, and to international trends of democratization anddisarmament."[29] These trends, according to Sadiki, are as follows: 1. Voll, Political Islam: Revolution,Radicalism, or Reform? In direct opposition to the thesis ofHuntington's "Clash of Civilizations,"[37] Fuller and Lesser conclude that"Islam as a faith is not on a collision course with the West. In Islam, any enterprise-economic or otherwise-may be an act ofdevotion, if it is entered into with the correct intentions. [5]"The New World Order," 2. [36]G. Socialist economics, as opposedto that of capitalism, emphasizes the primacy of the public sector, and, asis true of capitalist countries, the degree of such emphasis varies bycountry. Overcoming these obstacles will make overcoming the obstaclesthat tend to distance from the West more easily overcome. Islamic Modernism: Socio-Cultural Analysis. M. H. [51]Esposito, 13. Qutb, "The Islamic Basis of Development," In Islam andDevelopment (Plainfield, Indiana: The Association of Muslim SocialScientists, 1992), 1. al Masryn, Islamic Banking (Kuwait City: Government ofKuwait, 1993), 42. The third principle is a prohibition against the charging ofinterest (called usury in Islam) on the loan of money. Within this context, they hold that: "Thelethality of radical Muslim terrorism is an important aspect of itsprominence in Western perceptions,"[44] and that Western "to it will be afixture of the strategic environment for some time to come."[45] As usual,according to Fuller and Lesser, the culprit is Islam. Islam. and Voll, J. Islam in Revolution: Fundamentalism in the Arab World 2nd ed. [5 ]J. For the sake of earning money to buy food, service debts,arm the military and police to protect dictators, and satisfy theinsatiable appetite of rulers and elite, the poorer side of humanity indeveloping countries are depleting their natural resources. The legislationalso granted absolute power to the Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs todissolve any association without giving justification for such an act."Basically, when an organization has expressed a political stand againstthe government, it was banned, thereby creating an example for otherorganizations not to take a political stand."[64] The actions taken against women in the Gulf states "exemplify thevulnerability of women, because they are perceived as a threat to theconservative Gulf societies and the traditional patriarchal politicalsystems."[65] The situation, according to Fakhro, also implies theexistence of a "great potential for women's collective action for change-one which might arise in the future. [59]Z. Voll points out that meaningful links exist among Muslimactivists/scholars in the contemporary world. As such the 'NewOrder,' being like its predecessors designed in Western chancelleries andpresidential palaces, is not expected to be more favorable."[28] Secondly,disorder is associated with unpredictability, paralysis and inefficiency.Thus, little or no confidence is held by Middle Eastern Muslims in theexisting global system. B. [68]Salem, 156. [53]D. (Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press, 1995), 219. [61]J. [56]Hiro, 1 1. The rules of war in Islam hold that war must be defensive innature or must be conducted for the purpose of removing oppression whereverit might be, following what is now called a just cause. Boulder, Colorado: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1997.Fakhro, M. Pragmatists, who generallyview the classical and medieval Islamic doctrines and practices asanachronistic and impractical in the modern era, tend to look instead todifferent philosophies for political and socioeconomic models, includingcapitalism and socialism.[15] Husain contends that "Islam-which is a comprehensive system-has becomean attractive alternative among the masses, who identify themselves withthe umma, not with the secular, Westernizing nation-state."[16] If thiscontention is correct, the hopes that Islam can contribute to an improvedglobal order are compromised. [15]Husain, 11-12. Islamic economics assumes that no conflict exists or will developbetween the public and private sectors, and that each sector works for thegreater good of society. Instead, the lender sharesthe risks and the benefits of proposed ventures with the borrower. One common bond among most of thesecountries is a claim to an Islamic heritage. [19]M. Islam considers the charging of interest on loaned money as a form ofexploitation. Esposito, "Islam & Christianity Face to Face: An OldConflict & Prospects for A New Ending," Commonweal 124 (January 1997): 13. In Bahrain in April 1995, the government was swift in reacting to a petition signed by more than 3 professional women who were calling for the restoration of democracy; it demanded a written apology or the loss of their jobs. Its main enemy consists of former Western colonial powers, which the movement views as having spread Western 'secular values' in an attempt to destroy traditional Islamic religious ones. M. The international community's juggling of double standardsstands in contrast to the New World Order's proclaimed principles ofjustice and fair play. Sayeed, Islamic Modernism: Socio-Cultural Analysis(Karachi, Pakistan: Royal Book Co., 199 ), 76. When conceptsof individual liberty or political freedom are translated to mean factionalpolitics, these concepts are not considered to be consistent with Islamicprinciples.[74] In a truly Islamic society, a rational differentiation will not bemade between secular and religious authority. [82]Fakhro, 2. They play an important role-one performed by political parties inother countries-while representing the interests of the people, theyrecruit leaders."[82] Conclusion There can be no doubt that the Islamic societies of the Middle Eastare capable of making valuable contributions to a better world order. 3. E. [26]L. Sadiki contends that a new global order is required in the midst ofthe existing disorder of the Post-Cold War world. Throughthe guidance and support of these minority population groups, the Islamicgovernment in Iran is able to precipitate activities which may lead toincreased levels of political instability in other Islamic countries.[55] In the 199 s, some Islamic countries are attempting to developdemocratic political structures, concurrently with the development of theireconomies. A. A new generation of Islamically oriented leaders may be found in Egypt, the Sudan, Tunisia, Turkey, Jordan, Iran, Malaysia, Indonesia, Yemen, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and Pakistan.[5 ] Esposito observed further, however, that, for Islamic politicalactivists, "Islam is a total or comprehensive way of life as revealed inthe Qur'an, God's Word, mirrored in the example of the Prophet Muhammad andthe first Muslim community-state, and embodied in the Shariah, Islamic law. While the United Statescastigates Iraq for treatment of Kurds in that country, the United Statesoverlooks much worse treatment by Turkey of Kurds within that country. The differencesamong civilizations hamper peace efforts and attempts at economicintegration."[48] Esposito contends that Islam is exerting a global impact and that thisimpact will grow in both intensity and importance. [54]J. Remedial measures and workable suggestions have beenprescribed, but the obstacle, as expected, has always been those who holdthe reins of power, the custodians of unbridled, greedy, selfish,gluttonous, short-sighted capitalism."[12] The Qur'an says: "There is thetype of man whose speech about this world's life may dazzle you, and hecalls God to be his witness about what is in his heart, yet is he the mostcontentious of enemies. As an example, Islam is the declared state religion inLibya. The visionariesof the New World Order are no doubt mostly, if not all, men. Surelyhumanity at this epic of civilization never attained before, and as it goesinto the second millennium and heralds and celebrates a New World Order, iscapable of devising another instrument of peace making than war. Approximately 97 percent of Libyans are Sunni Moslems. [11]"The New World Order," 5. According to Salem, it is not to be understood from the extent of the current religious- traditionalist challenge to secularism that the latter has been extinguished. The second principle is a prohibition against the holding bybanks of large sums of money as capital. The cornerstone of capitalism is that the only function and sole destiny of capital is to grow and keep growing without limits. [44]Fuller and Lesser, 72. A. O. Yet closer examinationreveals that the conditions and issues that have inspired political Islamare multifaceted and vary from one country to another. The level of the equity interest assumed is afunction of the combination of the size of the enterprise, the amount ofmoney advanced, and, importantly, the level of risk associated with theenterprise. The role of man in this universe is to be God's vicegerent andtrustee, so equipped as to be capable of having full mandate over naturebut to manage the planet in accordance with the Creator's instructions andnot upon mane s own impulses and temptations."[5] 2. Other religionshave similar prohibitions; however, none of these religions activelyadvocate such a position in any of the industrialized countries in the lastyears of the twentieth century. In "Clash of Civilizations," Huntington traded his "red baiting" ofthe Cold War era for a newer "Muslim baiting."[46] Although Fuller andLesser state that they reject Huntington's thesis and approach, many oftheir ideas appear to be cut from the same bolt of cloth. A. [75]Ahady, 234. [2 ]el Araby, 79. Should the venture succeed, however, the lender shares inthe profits-typically to a greater extent than would occur through thepayment of interest. [35]Sadiki, 12. In Islam, all membersof a society are expected to contribute to the common good. The key question to consider, therefore, is whether the secular nationalist regimes will survive the challenge or not.[68] Salem holds that, except for the Sudan, which was largely destabilizedby the civil war, fundamentalist groups have not been able to break thehold on power of secular nationalist regimes. [9]"The New World Order," 4. [76]J. The outcome of the Arab-Israeli peace process likely willexert a significant effect on the future of secularism in Middle EasternIslamic societies. The first facet of the issue concerns the characterof any contribution that the Islamic societies of the Middle East can maketo a better world order. [78]Dekmejian, 22 . "Al-la Nidam: An Arab View of the New World (Dis)Order." Arab Studies Quarterly (ASQ) 17 (June 1995): 1-22.Salem, P. This concept should be extended toincorporate a real effort at development of the Third World. The Character of Any Contribution That Islamic Societies in the Middle East Can Make to A Better World Order The character of any contribution that Islamic societies in the MiddleEast can make to a better world order is considered in two discussions.The first, and longer of these two discussions, deals with therelationships between the Islamic societies of the Middle East and thewider global community, while the second addresses the most significant ofsuch contributions that may be made by the Islamic societies of the MiddleEast.Islam & the Wider Global Community A widely shared view within Islamic societies in the Middle East isthat the collapse of communism does not attest to the fitness ofcapitalism, as both communism and capitalism are materialistic in nature.Both systems, unlike Islam, assume that society and the individual are inconflict. How Islamic Societies in the Middle East Can Contribute to the Development of A Better World Order Introduction This research addresses the issue of how Islamic societies in theMiddle East can contribute to a better world order. The Shi`a school of Islamiclaw is the one to which Iran, and hence, almost all Islamicfundamentalists, adheres.[56] The teachings and interpretations of theShi'a school differ in some significant respects from those of the schoolswhose interpretations are accepted by the Sunni. Such a developmentcarries a very serious message to the authorities, since the poorerelements of the population are actively seeking solutions that depend onsources other than the state."[81] In the Gulf states, civil groups such as labor unions and formalpolitical parties are banned; thus, "political activities are taking placein cultural and sports clubs as well as in religious centers. Thus, for Islamists the renewal and revitalization of governments andsocieties require the restoration or reimplementation of Islamic law, whichis the blueprint for an Islamically guided and socially just state andsociety. [57]Piscatori, 54. It was declared openly by post- revolutionary Iran and waged by several growing anti- Israeli, anti-Jewish religious groups such as Hamas, Hezbollah, al-Jamaa al-Islamiyya and others.[7 ] 3. Defenders of God: The Fundamentalist Revolt Against the Modern Age. The destruction of Iraqicapabilities is believed to have tilted the regional balance of power infavor of (a) Iran, (b) Turkey, and (c) Israel, with the latter furtherwidening her competitive edge. [81]Fakhro, 2. Disorder, akin to a kind of ordered chaos, isthe order as far as they are concerned. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996.Esposito, J. There are fourmajor schools of Islamic law (there are also three minor schools). [21]el Araby, 8 . Muslims accept that the same old waragainst Islam is still carried on unchecked from 1, years ago .... [8]"The New World Order," 3. ... Chiefamong these other factors are the following: 1. He called upon working women to quit their jobs and stay at home. Fuller and Lesser at least acknowledge that not only Huntington butalso Muslims disagree with their thesis. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Transnation Publishers, 1992.Laffin, J. Perhapsindependent courts of justice can settle differences between nations."[11] 4. These practices havebeen imposed by governments, by religious leaders, and by parliamentmembers in some Gulf states. H. Arberry, (Translator), Translation of the Qur`an (New York:Macmillan, 1974), 2 5. Dekmejian, Islam in Revolution: Fundamentalism in the ArabWorld 2nd ed. "The Islamic Basis of Development." In Islam and Development. [42]Fuller and Lesser, 93. Individual spiritual development isthe basis from which further development stems. [12]"The New World Order," 6. Holy wars: The Rise of Islamic Fundamentalism. IslamicFundamentalism, according to Victor ... U. During this time, the Muslim world has seen the resurgence of thepolitical Islam in a variety of guises: revolution, radicalism and reform.Are these developments in any way connected? "We arefree to own and to increase our wealth by lawful means practically withoutlimits as long as we are aware that capital has its rights but also has itsduties."[6] The function of capital is not merely to grow ad infinitum.The function of capital also is to fulfill obligations to society. Islam and Democracy. (Translator). In capitalist systems, the emphasis is placedon the private sector, although the degree of such emphasis varies amongcountries. Some Islamic societies in the Middle East have resisted Islamicfundamentalism. The Islamic Threat: Myth or Reality? De Gruyter, "The Lure of Fundamentalism," NRC Handelsblad,Rotterdam, Netherlands, (2 September 1996): 4. Asopposed to a college or university in western countries, where individualslearn to become lawyers, schools of Islamic law are groups of religiousexperts whose interpretations of the Qur`an and the Shari`ah in the contextof contemporary activities which were not dreamt of in the eighth century,and (2) preserving traditional Islamic values. Esposito and Voll alsoreject the conception of monolithic Islamic fundamentalism. H. Islamic Fundamentalism is closely interwoven with anti-colonialist sentiment and, as such, views itself as fighting an external foreign enemy. [3 ]Sadiki, 4. Shi'a throughout the world,however, are united both by a shared interpretation of the Islamic faith,and by a shared feeling of persecution at the hands of other branches ofIslam. Brotherhood, rather than either individual liberty or freedom, isemphasized in Islam. Roberts, Islam (San Francisco: Harper & Row, Publishers,1991), 77. Johnstonconcludes, however, that religion can exert a positive role in conflictresolution. Esposito and J. Banking Without Interest. Western media domination and a one-way flow ofWestern information to the Islamic world through sophisticatedcommunication technologies is seen as a kind of cultural "tele-crusade".Islamists fear this media domination propagates "social norms, ways oflife, and behaviors in a way that renders the indigenous culture inferiorand second-class."[34] There is a growing feeling amongst Islamists that the wide crackdownon Islamist movements throughout the Middle East aims at combating Islam asa political ideology and a medium of liberation from dependentauthoritarianism. Rather, according to Salem, the arguments of the fundamentalists are making little headway among the still generally secular intelligentsia. "Arrogance is at the heart of this contradiction. Victor, J. P. [65]Fakhro, 3. TheUnited States insists on strict adherence by the Palestinians of UnitedNations resolutions, yet blocks any attempt to compel Israel to comply withsuch resolutions; thereby thwarting any hopes of distributive justice. [1 ]A. As the needs of unproductive individuals, as opposed to theneeds of productive enterprises, are served primarily by speculation. The first stage is the spiritualdevelopment of the individual Muslim. They have become part and parcel of mainstream religion and society, found among the middle and lower classes, educated and uneducated, professionals and workers, young and old, men, women, and children. A.
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