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INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY.
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Origins in 1950s & development, members, purpose, functions, organization, costs, crises, effectiveness, leadership, future.... More...
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Paper Abstract:
Origins in 1950s & development, members, purpose, functions, organization, costs, crises, effectiveness, leadership, future.
Paper Introduction:
HISTORY AND FUNCTIONS OF THE
INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY
Early History
In 1953, President Dwight D. Eisenhower gave a speech called "Atoms for Peace" before the United Nations General Assembly. The events leading up to the speech included the testing of an atomic bomb in England and the United States testing of a hydrogen bomb, both events in 1952.President Eisenhower's speech called for "the governments principally involved" (naming the USA and Soviet Union) to make joint contributions from their stockpiles of normal uranium and fissionable materials to an international atomic energy agency set up under the UN. Part of that speech is included here:
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Thompson, M. (1996, May 15). ReferencesCherniack, M., (1996, July 1). (1998, November 11). 64-66. Chernobyl: The forbidden truth. The study showed the effects of radiation in three republics (Belarus,Russia, Ukraine), covering about 825, people. India reignites atomic debate., TheChristian Science Monitor, 1. The New York Times,1. Later, in early 1956, the group expanded to twelve withrepresentatives from the USSR, Czechoslovakia, India, and Brazil. TechnologyReview, 99, 7 -72. Among the peoplesurveyed, numerous health problems including high incidences of cancer wererevealed (Cherniack, 1996, 71). His biggest job will be to implement the stronger powersthat the IAEA has been granted to face the challenge of exercising stronginvestigative powers to detect possible secret nuclear activities. That is the major challenge facing the new director of the IAEA, Dr.Mohamed ElBaradei of Egypt, who is only the fourth Director General in theIAEA's history. Eisenhower gave a speech called "Atomsfor Peace" before the United Nations General Assembly. The capability, already proved, is here today. The United States knows that peaceful power from atomic energy is no dream of the future. These nationsjoined in 1958: Belgium, Cambodia, Ecuador, Finland, Islamic Republic ofIran, Luxembourg, Mexico, Philippines, and Sudan. He also stressed that theIAEA's Action Team should continue to exercise its right to investigatefurther any aspects of Iraq's nuclear program. Who can doubt that, if the entire body of the world's scientists and engineers had adequate amounts of fissionable material with which to test and develop their ideas, this capability would rapidly be transformed into universal, efficient and economic usage?" (Eisenhower, 1953)Among the agency's responsibilities would be to store and safeguard thematerial and to "devise methods" whereby it would be allocated to serve the"peaceful pursuits of mankind." The first step in this direction was in 1954, when America amended itsAtomic Energy Act to permit peaceful international nuclear cooperation,leading to bilateral agreements with a number of States. The past ten years have beenparticularly difficult for the IAEA. Nuclear nonproliferation and safety - concerns with the internationalatomic energy agency's technical cooperation. The decade 1986 to 1997 revealed toa stunning degree the strengths and the weaknesses of the IAEA. The events leadingup to the speech included the testing of an atomic bomb in England and theUnited States testing of a hydrogen bomb, both events in 1952.PresidentEisenhower's speech called for "the governments principally involved"(naming the USA and Soviet Union) to make joint contributions from theirstockpiles of normal uranium and fissionable materials to an internationalatomic energy agency set up under the UN. According toits 1997 Annual Report, the IAEA:* Marks 4 years of international service in 1998Employs 2221 professional and support staff;* Operates on a US $232 million regular budget for 1997 supplemented byextra-budgetary contributions amounting to about US $42 million;* Sought US $68 million for voluntary contributions to the agency'stechnical co-operation fund, supporting projects involving 4 184 expert andlecturer assignments and 1,752 participants in training courses in 1997;* Maintains three international laboratories and research centers;* Operates two liaison offices (in New York and Geneva)and 2 safeguardsfield offices (in Tokyo and Toronto);* Supervises 178 approved coordinated research projects involving 2,238active research contracts and agreements;* Oversees 221 safeguards agreements in force in 137 member states (andwith Taiwan, China) involving 2,499 safeguards inspections performed in1997;* Spent $81,845, 23 to run the safeguards in addition to $12.2 millionin extra-budgetary resources;* Oversees and publicizes 15 national safeguards support programs and 1multinational support program (EURATOM); and* Maintains 2 million records in the international nuclear informationsystem (INIS), the agency's largest database. An organization chart showing the current structure of the IAEA isincluded on the following page.The IAEA Tomorrow The results of global nuclear cooperation are positive, but mostexperts agree that the battle is not won (UN: Director-general..., 1996).According to the IAEA 1997 Annual Report, while "there is still a long wayto go, the day is drawing closer[pic]when no government finds 'security' in nuclear weapons, and all Statesenshrine their commitments against the bomb's risks and uncertainties inlasting law" (IAEA annual report, 1997, 14). HISTORY AND FUNCTIONS OF THE INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCYEarly History In 1953, President Dwight D. The road to zero.(TheAtomic Age at 5 ). Beyond NPT (Nuclear NonproliferationTreaty). Dr. ElBaradei's biggest challenge is dealing with Iraq's decision of August 5,1998 to suspend cooperation with the IAEA, which constitutes a totallyunacceptable contravention of its obligations under Security Councilresolutions and the Memorandum of Understanding signed by the Deputy PrimeMinister of Iraq and the UN Secretary-General on February 23, 1998(Director General highlights..., 1998, 81). If Iraq is allowed to hide itsweapons manufacturing from the world nations, then other nations mightconsider abandoning the IAEA, leading to new rounds of nuclear escalation.Dr. (1998, May 13). October 1956 saw 82 nations of the UN approve thestatutes, which now include several amendments calling for control andregulation of nuclear fuels (Steinberg, 1996, 65).The Agency Grows Up In 1957, these nations all agreed to abide by the directives of theIAEA: Afghanistan, Albania, Argentina, Australia, Austria, Belarus,Brazil, Bulgaria, Canada, Cuba, Denmark, Dominican Republic, Egypt, ElSalvador, Ethiopia, France, Germany, Greece, Guatemala, Haiti, Holy See,Hungary, Iceland, India, Indonesia, Israel, Italy, Japan, Republic ofKorea, Monaco, Morocco, Myanmar, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway,Pakistan, Paraguay, Peru, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russian Federation,South Africa, Spain, Sri Lanka, Sweden,Switzerland, Thailand, Tunisia, Turkey, Ukraine, UnitedKingdom, United States, Venezuela, Viet Nam, and Yugoslavia. In 1959, the IAEA was formally headquartered in Vienna, Austria, withthe principal policy-making organizations: the General Conference, composedof representatives of the 124 IAEA member states; its decision-makingbody, the 35-member Board of Governors; and a Secretariat headed by aDirector General. Available: www.iaea.org. The United States is a permanent member of IAEA's Boardof Governors. Address by Mr. Dwight D.Eisenhower, President of the United States of America, to the 47 th PlenaryMeeting of the United Nations General Assembly IAEA annual report and technical co-operation report, (1997).International Atomic Energy Agency. Likewise, the potential nuclear escalationbetween India and Pakistan, as well as the nuclear threat coming from NorthKorea and Iraq set the stage for far-reaching changes to the world'spolitical landscape (Landay, 1998,1). The Iraq situation has brought the world to the brink of war as USwarships are currently in the Gulf as part of a nuclear showdown with thegovernment of Saddam Hussein. El Baradei has formally demanded that Iraq rescind the decision andcooperate fully with the IAEA in accordance with its obligations, as wellas resume dialogue with the IAEA immediately. Although the United States does not receivetechnical assistance, it has been the leading financial donor to IAEA'stechnical cooperation program. 81. Almostsimultaneously, in the USSR, the world's first nuclear power plant wascommissioned at Obninsk. Eisenhower, D.D. Technology Review, 98. The 197 Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons expanded IAEA'ssafeguards responsibilities because it required signatory non-nuclear-weapon states to agree not to acquire nuclear weapons and to accept IAEA'ssafeguards for all nuclear material used for peaceful nuclear activities.Both the nonproliferation treaty and the Treaty of Tlatelolco - whichprohibits nuclear weapons in signatory Latin American countries - bindsignatories to blanket nonproliferation agreements for their entire nuclearprogram and require inspections of all nuclear facilities by IAEA, known as"full-scope" safeguards. In the early 196 s, IAEA established an inspection program based on asystem of technical measures, referred to as safeguards, designed to detectthe diversion of significant quantities of nuclear material. UN: Director-general tells assembly of ever-widening role of IAEA.(1996, October 1). Whilethe statutes were being drafted, more than 1,5 scientists gathered inGeneva for the UN's First International Conference on Peaceful Uses ofNuclear Energy. [On-line]. 74-77. As of 1997, the IAEA had 128 member states and 4 partnerorganizations worldwide under formal agreements and arrangements all underthe guidance of a governing body comprising 35 member states. & Forsberg, R. Brinksmanship? Part of that speech is includedhere: "The United States knows that if the fearful trend of atomic military build-up can be reversed, this greatest of destructive forces can be developed into a great boon, for the benefit of all mankind. M2 PressWIRE. Other nations and their dates of ratification and/or joining the IAEAare:|Year |Nation ||1959 |Iraq ||196 |Chile, Colombia, Ghana, and Senegal ||1961 |Lebanon, Mali, and Democratic Republic of the Congo ||1962 |Liberia, Saudi Arabia ||1963 |Algeria, Bolivia, Côte d'Ivoire, Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, Syrian || |Arab Republic, and Uruguay ||1964 |Cameroon, Gabon, Kuwait, and Nigeria ||1965 |Costa Rica, Cyprus, Jamaica, Kenya, and Madagascar ||1966 |Jordan, Panama ||1967 |Sierra Leone, Singapore, and Uganda ||1968 |Liechtenstein ||1969 |Malaysia, Niger, and Zambia ||197 |Ireland ||1972 |Bangladesh ||1973 |Mongolia ||1974 |Mauritius ||1976 |Qatar, United Arab Emirates, and United Republic of Tanzania ||1977 |Nicaragua ||1983 |Namibia ||1984 |China ||1986 |Zimbabwe ||1992 |Estonia, Slovenia ||1993 |Armenia, Croatia, Czech Republic, Lithuania, and Slovakia ||1994 |The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Kazakhstan, || |Marshall Islands, Uzbekistan, and Yemen ||1995 |Bosnia and Herzegovina ||1996 |The Republic of Georgia ||1997 |Latvia, Malta, Republic of Moldova ||1998 |Burkina Faso, Benin | Since 1958, the IAEA has been involved in promoting the peaceful usesof nuclear energy through its technical cooperation program, which providestechnical assistance to its member states by supplying equipment, expertservices, and training that support the upgrading or establishment ofnuclear techniques and facilities. Landay, J.S. During most of 1955, representatives fromAustralia, Belgium, Canada, France, Portugal, South Africa, United Kingdom,and the USA met in Washington, DC to draft the organizational Statutes ofthe International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) (Dean & Forsberg, 1995, 74). These 11years challenged the concept of peaceful non-proliferation and raised theissue of to what extent, and by which forces, should nuclear enforcement beenacted (Nuclear nonproliferation and safety..., 1997). Director General highlights major work ahead (1998, October-November).IAEA Briefs, 13,4. (1953, December 8). (1997, September 16).Washington DC, Government Accounting Office Report. Steinberg, G. Technology Review, 99. The results of this showdown could chart anew course for the IAEA, since it will test the agency's strength as aglobal nuclear watchdog (Thompson, 1998,1). Dean, J. (1995, August 18). In 1986, the Chernobyl incidentfocused worldwide attention on the risks of nuclear power and launched ayear-long project involving more than 1 scientists and fourinternational organizations, including the World Health Organization, Foodand Agriculture Organization, Commission of European Communities, andUnited Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation(Cherniack, 1996, 71).
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