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FALL OF SOVIET UNION.
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Examines reasons for 1991 Soviet collapse, communist ideology, global, economic, political & social challenges for successor states, nationalistic & ethnic ferment.... More...
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Paper Abstract:
Examines reasons for 1991 Soviet collapse, communist ideology, global, economic, political & social challenges for successor states, nationalistic & ethnic ferment.
Paper Introduction:
SOVIET SUCCESSOR STATES
This research paper discusses various aspects of the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, including the reasons why the communist system and ideology in the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) failed, the legacy bequeathed by communism to the successor states which emerged, the political, economic and social challenges that arose in those states and how those states responded to those challenges.
A number of inter-related factors led to the disintegration of the Soviet system and empire, including the woeful inadequacy of the totalitarian police state, dogmatic communist ideology and centralized planned economy which evolved after the Russian Revolution of 1917 in preparing the Soviet Union to meet the requirements of the late 20th century, international developments
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Ofer, & A.Waldron (Eds.). 448). The dismal state of health care inRussia. The RussianArmy intervened largely on the side of ethnic Russians who attempted in1991-1992 to secede from Moldova which had a Romanian majority. Cohen, S. E. (199 ). Powell, D. Brzezinski, Z. A number of inter-related factors led to the disintegration of theSoviet system and empire, including the woeful inadequacy of thetotalitarian police state, dogmatic communist ideology and centralizedplanned economy which evolved after the Russian Revolution of 1917 inpreparing the Soviet Union to meet the requirements of the late 2 thcentury, international developments which involved a mismatch betweenSoviet imperial ambitions and the capacity of the Soviet system to keep uptechnologically and to compete with the United States and the rest of theindustrialized world economically, and the failure of the attempt by Sovietleader Mikhail Gorbachev and his associates to reform the Soviet systemafter Gorbachev became Party Secretary in March 1985, a well nighimpossible task compounded by errors of judgment. 112). . The situation became worse in the 198 s as the computer revolution took hold" [which] "thrives on individual initiative and an unrestrained flow of information" (p. International Factors Under Leonid Brezhnev (1964-1982), Yuri Andropov (1982-1984) andKonstantin Chernenko (1984-1985), the Soviet Union pursued a policy ofattempting to achieve parity in nuclear arms with the West and undertookexpansionist actions overseas, by invading Afghanistan in 1979 andsupporting its proxies in Angola, Ethiopia, and Central America. . Evaluation of Progress The Baltic states which broke completely away from Russia have afterinitial economic difficulties reorganized their affairs and haveflourishing democracies. vii). Manysuccessor states, such as Moldova, the Trans-Caucasian and Central Asianstates were riven with internal dissension and, in some cases, wars. Although the successor states benefitted from the material gainswhich had been achieved under Soviet communism, the breakup of the SovietUnion had a devastatingly destabilizing and damaging effect on them, ontheir political unity, which was aggravated by their ill-preparedness forself-government, and on their economies which had been previouslyintegrated and centrally administered, and by unleashing nationalist andethnic tensions and conflicts. Introduction: Gorbachev and the Sovietreformation. That failure was also politicalas communist ideology no longer held much appeal for its educatedpopulation and its attempt under Gorbachev to reform itself was inherentlyflawed. The basic problems were traceable to the centrallyplanned economy, "inefficiency, lack of productivity, unresponsiveness toconsumer needs, and technological stagnation" (Spanier at al., 1995, p.247). 325). Russia a country study. Above all, the standard of living of theaverage Russian has continued to fall reflecting massive flights of capitalabroad and disinvestment in basic infrastructure and industry. Nevertheless, he failed to hold the Soviet Uniontogether. The former Baltic republics recovered fastest. Voices of glasnost. Brzezinski (1989) says that "during the197 s, Soviet growth rates lost momentum, and the economy atrophied" (p.35). (1995), Soviet rates of economic growthdeclined from five percent in the 196 s to two percent in the early 197 sand zero by 198 (p. (199 ). 4 3). After Gorbachev rejected petitionsby Armenians for the award of the disputed province of Nagorno-Karabakh toArmenia, Soviet troops were sent to Azerbaijan to stop anti-Armenianpogroms and anti-Soviet riots, but war broke out anyway between Armenia andAzerbaijan. F. Execution by hunger The hidden Holocaust. Among industrialized countries,Russia had the highest infant mortality rates and the lowest adult lifeexpectancy, as well as the highest abortion and suicide rates (Powell,1998, October, p. Huge crowds of5 , or more in countries with populations of only 1.5 million(Estonia), 2.5 million (Latvia) and 3.5 million (Lithuania) demandedsovereignty and eventually in 1988-199 independence. Hook. In W. Martin's Press. L. C. Washington, D.C.:Library of Congress. Reasons for the Decline of Soviet Communist Rule On December 25, 1991, Gorbachev as one of his last acts aftercommunism had been irretrievably discredited by the failure of theattempted coup of August 1991 by Soviet hardliners, ordered the hammer andsickle to be lowered from the Kremlin ending 74 years of Soviet rule. Legacy of Soviet Communism After the disintegration of the Soviet Union, all of the successorstates, including the large Russian Federation, faced enormous problems inreconstituting their polities, economies and societies and in fashioningnew relationships among each other. 161). He sought torevitalize the communist party and the Soviet state through reforms such asglasnost (greater openness) and perestroika (restructuring). According to Curtis (1998), "Gorbachev increasinglyfound himself between criticism by conservatives who wanted to stop reformand liberals who wanted to accelerate it" (p. (1985). Overcoming the effectsof three quarters of a century of Soviet misrule will take decades. . However, as discussed below, itsprogress toward democracy has been uneven and its economy, despite westernfinancial aid and market reforms, remains very depressed and unstable.Nationalist agitation and ethnic tensions became even worse in manyrepublics after independence. Why? (Ed.). Conclusion Soviet communism failed to meet the needs of its peoples and fellfrom power largely because of its own internal weaknesses, especially itsbackward economy and its inability to compete in the global marketplace andto keep pace with technological progress. (Ed.). With many historical ties to Poland, Sweden and Lithuania, it hasbeen under Russian control for centuries. Current History,97, 342-346. W. Laquer, W. 223). Armeniahad in ancient times been independent, but had been warred over forcenturies by various powers. Its experience with constitutional government in 19 5-19 7 and for a few months in the spring of 1917 was brief. (1998, October). F., & K. (1995),responded that "this interpretation of events . According to Arel (1998, October), significant political and economicreforms in Ukraine have been stymied by a conservative Parliament andeconomic performance has been "dismal" (p. (1997, 7 June). 1-37). Communal riots erupted in other parts of Central Asia. Privatization was mishandled resulting in the enrichment ofelites, wages of many employees and pensions are months in arrears,corruption and crime are rife. SovietUnion 2 reform or revolution? Russia has thus far avoided a reversion to authoritarian rule. (1995)said that "capable only of producing a plentiful supply of weapons, theSoviet economy could no longer supply basic goods and public services . Belarus, Ukraine and Kazakhstan found themselves in possession oflarge supplies of nuclear weapons, but eventually under pressure from theUnited States and Russia turned over to the Russians. Norton. Themajor states closest to Russia in the West, Belarus and Ukraine struggledto maintain political unity and to arrest economic decline. Luttwak, G. New York: St. (1995). In the end, Gorbachev unleashed forces he could not control andreaped the whirlwind. The immediate event which caused the existence of the USSR, whichhad been founded in 1922, to end were the declarations of independence fromMoscow by all 14 of the constituent republics and the refusal of most ofthem to enter negotiations for a new All-Union Treaty. Thefailed coup had propelled pro-democracy and anti-communist Russianleadership headed by Boris Yeltsin to the fore and forced Gorbachev frompower. 17-18.----------------------- 14 C. (1998, October). (1994, November). A. 232). 44-46). In summarizing the situation, Cohen (1989) referred to"alcoholism, workplace indifference, bureaucratic corruption, mafia-likecrime, rural decay, ecological abuse and social injustice [which] hadbecome widespread" (p. Few of them had any experience withself-government and were used to central control from Moscow. (pp. 5 ). According to Lacquer(199 ), "it was apparently not realized [by the Soviet leadership] that,the moment police controls were reduced, nationalist forces hithertosuppressed would resurface again" (p. Erickson, P. Cohen, & K. Gaddis, J. Nationalistic and Ethnic Ferment In the USSR, a modicum of ethnic and linguistic autonomy was left tothe eleven socialist republics and the equality of all Soviet citizens"irrespective of race and nationality" was guaranteed by the 1936 SovietConstitution. New York: W. Or, as Alexis de Tocqueville said, "the most dangerous moment fora corrupt regime is when it attempts to reform itself" (Dobbs, 1997, p.327). References Arel, D. Gorbachev recognized the need for drastic change. According to Feder(1995), "Belarus is a graphic example of the problems created when anindustrial 'colony' becomes independent" (p. Economist, pp. The Balticstates were fortunate in that they had governed themselves during theinterwar period until they were absorbed by the Soviet Union after the Nazi-Soviet Pact in 1939. New York: Charles Scribner's. 18). Down with big brother The fall of the Sovietempire. He says that "withits domestic economy in shambles, the Soviets could not afford toaccelerate the arms race on so grand a scale" (1995, p. W. 222). The Baltic republics led theway. 44).With a dominant White Russian (77.8 percent) and Russian (13.2 percent)population, Belarus has been relatively free of ethnic tensions. Soviet politics: Current trends. 342). According to Brzezinski (1989), "Stalin seemedto have closed the national question once and for all --largely by killingoff all independent-minded non-Russian leaders" (p. Goble, E. Waldron (Eds.). Laquer withJ. Ukraine and Russia seal a deal. Its diminished international power wascomplicated by chaos and instability in many of its bordering regions. Dolot, M. Ukraine is the second largest Republic. Feder (1995) says that GDP declined 21 percent in1994, 63 percent of farms remaining collectivized and privatization effortswere stalled (pp. NewYork: W. 27). SOVIET SUCCESSOR STATES This research paper discusses various aspects of the collapse of theSoviet Union in 1991, including the reasons why the communist system andideology in the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) failed, thelegacy bequeathed by communism to the successor states which emerged, thepolitical, economic and social challenges that arose in those states andhow those states responded to those challenges. However, he instituted economic sanctions againstLithuania and sent in special forces in an abortive attempt to put downdemonstrations in Lithuania in January, 1991. Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly. (199 ). Curtis (1998) says that "the issue Gorbachev understoodleast of all was that of nationalities" (p. Industrialization, which was concentrated in heavy industry and formilitary purposes, continued after the war but by the 196 s, Premier NikitaKhrushchev acknowledged that the agricultural sector was lagging due topoor harvests and low productivity. He argues that Reagan's Strategic Defense Initiative(SDI) in particular worried the Soviets because it threatened to escalatedramatically the costs of competition in military R & D. It has thus far succeeded in preventing Muslimfundamentalist parties from taking power in Tajikistan and other parts ofCentral Asia. (1997). Norton. Russia in cooperation with a number of republican governments hasintervened to help preserve stability in the face of escalating nationalistand ethnic tensions. vanden Heuvel (Eds.), Voices of glasnost(pp. F. Feder, H. vanden Heuvel (Eds.). Norton. Soviet Union 2 reform or revolution? Martin's Press. All the Republics benefitted from the high levels of education,social welfare, job security and public health achieved under communism.However, by 1991, the rot within the system had caused significant decay inall these areas. Ethnicdisputes erupted in a number of other republics. Norton. Its economy, almosttotally dependent on Russia financially was in 1992 characterized by"inefficient, state-supported industrial facilities" (p. 13-32). Why Gorbachev happened: His triumphs andfailures. central planners could not respond fast enough to shifts in supply and demand when not just a few but thousands of producers and commodities were involved . The United States and the end of the cold war.New York: Oxford University Press. 1 9). Russia has faced daunting challenges since 1991 in all spheres.Politically, it has held two fairly free elections to the legislature andfor the presidency in 1993 and 1995. . Cohen, S. Powell (1998, October) said that "Russia'shealth care system is in crisis" (p. 336-337). Washington,D.C.: Library of Congress. New York: Alfred A. Goble, E. The more highly developed economies,such as Belarus and Ukraine, for example, benefitted from the forcedindustrialization which had reduced their dependence on agriculture, butfound themselves dependent on Russia for essential supplies of naturalresources, key components, trained technicians and energy. Russia itselfbecame an economic basket case as it struggled to replace autocratic rulewith an embryonic form of representative government and to move away from acentrally controlled economy. 198). New York: W. McFaul (1998, October) summarized the state of Russian democracy: "The constitution gives too many powers to the president, the judiciary does not act as a third and independent branch of government, political parties are weak, mass-based interest groups are marginal, the rule of law has only begun to take hold, and the media are becoming less independent" (p. W. Spanier, J., & S. Some foreign policy experts such as StrobeTalbott, later Deputy Secretary of State during the first Bill Clintonadministration, argued that communism collapsed due to its internalweaknesses, irrespective of the Reagan arms buildup of the early 198 s(Muravchik, 1984, November, p. International factors also played a key role in its demise. In 1997, Ukraine reachedagreement with Russia over the use by the Russian navy of Sevastopol for 2 years, but the Russian State Duma has blocked ratification of the treaty(Ukraine, 1997, 7 June, p. Dobbs, M. The Russian economy is bankrupt by ordinary standards after the freefall of the ruble and a 9 day moratorium on the repayment of foreign debtin 1998. Curtis, G. fails to recognize thecrucial part that Reagan played in raising the costs of the superpowercompetition" (p. (1995). Belarus despite outward democratic forms has basically anauthoritarian government. At times, he ditheredin domestic policy, tacking his sails first in one direction and then inanother on his program of reforms, which never assumed a coherent shape andin particular failed to arrest the downward slide of the economy. (1998, October). Muravchik, J. Belarus and Moldova. In 1986 and 1988, respectively, Russian troops brutallyrepressed anti-government demonstrations in Kazakstan and in Tiblisi,Georgia. The majority of its 52million population is Ukrainian with a significant (11 million) Russianminority. With an economy lessthan half the size of the United States, the Soviet Union in the early198 s outspent the Americans on defense, 25-3 percent of Soviet GDP(Spanier et al., 1995, p. E. Gorbachev wasunwilling to use force to prevent the Eastern European nations frombreaking with the Soviet bloc and even acquiesced in 199 to a reunifiedGermany joining NATO. W. Economically, the breakup disrupted the integrated Soviet economy andinter-republic trading relationships. By the186 s, Russia fell behind other industrializing nations. Laquer with J. New York:W. 4 ). Those effects varied greatly from one regionto another. . CurrentHistory, 97, 3 7-312. . Luttwak, G. 31 ). The major issue with Russia is their refusal togrant dual citizenship to ethnic Russians in their midst. Current History, 97, 335-341. How the cold war really ended.Commentary, pp. Gorbachevreversed those policies after 1985, but Kaiser (1991) says "the cost ofsustaining superpower status was immense" (p. Hesuccessfully bought time to institute domestic reforms by negotiatingdetente with the West. Overall, it is continuing to act like a stronger world powerthan it in fact is. (1989). At enormous humancosts, including mass murders which Brzezinski (1989) estimates were in therange of 2 to 4 million people, Josef Stalin succeeded then inindustrializing and urbanizing large parts of the Soviet Union through theuse of forced labor, central planning and the collectivization ofagriculture (p. Erickson, P. However, the power of the nationalists and ex- communists in the Duma has been growing and grave uncertainties exist over Yeltsin's health and the succession. Kaiser, R. (1991). Ever since it had emerged from Mongol rule, Tucker (199 )says that "the Russian state system took shape [as an autocracy] beforehaving time to engage, as in the West, from a process of internal economicdevelopment" (p. New York: Simon & Schuster. Stalin in power. moved into a new phase of economic development in the 196 s and 197 s . Russia's summer of discontent. Russia itself had a long history of autocracy long antedatingcommunist rule. A. As the largest producer of grainin the former Soviet Union, it is a major source of food for Russia and isimportant strategically as it lies on the traditional Western invasionroute into Russia and the Russian Black Sea fleet uses Crimean ports.Ukrainians suffered greatly under Stalin's rule. 87). In S. Some entities, such as the Ukraine, which had enjoyedsome autonomy under Poland, Czarist Russia and briefly at the end of WorldWar I under German tutelage had some prior experience as a nation. Ofer, & A. During the Great Famine of1932-1933, an estimated five to seven million people died of forcedstarvation (Dolot, 1985, p. (1998). The grand failure The birth and death ofcommunism in the twentieth century. The standard ofliving of the average Russian fell during the 198 s. Expenditures on public health in the USSR were6.6 percent of GDP in 196 , 4.6 percent in 1985, and in Russia, only 1.6percent in 1994 (Powell, 1998, October, p. (1989). New York:St. According to Dobbs (1997),"the bloodshed in Vilnius caused a wave of revulsion and apprehensionthroughout the Soviet Union" (p. 341). Popular front coalitions were formed in the late 198 s. Ukraine is dependent on Russia for fuel(natural gas and oil). As Gaddis (1992) explained, "command economies work reasonably well during the initial stages of industrialization" [but] "as the U.S.S.R. . . According to Spanier et al. Some of its interventions, such as its use of troopsto support separatist ethnic Russians in Transnistria in Moldova andAbkhazian separatists in Georgia as well as its incompetent repression ofthe independence movement in Chechnya within its borders, raise questionsabout Russia's ability to quell disorder on its frontiers and whether it isattempting "to reconstitute its traditional empire or at least to includethe Newly Independent States within an exclusive sphere of influence"(Curtis, 1998, p. Tucker, R. McFaul, M. American foreign policy sinceWorld War II. Gorbachev's reforms opened the door to assertions of nationalism andethnic identity. Ukraine: The middle way. A fundamental but by no means only failure of Soviet communism wasits inability to achieve reasonable levels of economic performance. Knopf. (1992). .harvests failed repeatedly in the 197 s . Thelegacy of communism to the successor states was basically negative. 222). 345). . Ingeneral, they have done well to survive given the obstacles they faced in1991 and since, but the progress which has been achieved is very modest,except in a few cases such as the Baltic republics. However, behind this facade, Tucker (199 ) says that"Stalin's Russian centralism made cultural and linguistic Russification theorder of the day" (p. In recognitionof their mutual dependence, Russia, Belarus and Ukraine, which together in1992 accounted for 73 percent of the population and 8 percent of theterritory of the former USSR, joined in late 1991 the Commonwealth ofIndependent States (CIS), a loose confederation, to which a number of otherRepublics later acceded, sometimes, as in the case of rebellious Georgia,only after great Russian pressure. 2 5). W. 16). As Brzezinski (1989) put it, "economicsuccess can only be purchased at the cost of political stability, whilepolitical stability can only be sustained at the cost of economic failure"(p. Gorbachev's aim was to preserve communist control through reform.That proved to be impossible. 49 ). W. 44). Others, such as Spanier et al. 14). Despite enormouspolitical difficulties, Russia did achieve rapid rates of uneven economicgrowth in the 25 years before World War I, but due to the effects of thewar, revolution and Civil War, the Russian economy did not again achievepositive growth rates until the 193 s, except for a brief period underVladimir Lenin's New Economic Policy in the mid-192 s. Ukraine enjoys good relations with the Westbut has incurred Moscow's displeasure by hinting that it might like to joinNATO. 4 -44. Spanier et al. [and] was nearing abreakdown" (p.
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