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NATIONAL PARKS ADMINISTRATION.
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Conflicts & controversies between administrators & politicians related to environmental protection. Commercial interests, visitors, roads & vehicles, water, mining, wildlife.... More...
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Paper Abstract:
Conflicts & controversies between administrators & politicians related to environmental protection. Commercial interests, visitors, roads & vehicles, water, mining, wildlife.
Paper Introduction:
CONFLICTS & CONTROVERSIES BETWEEN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATORS & POLITICIANS CONCERNING NATIONAL PARKS MANAGEMENT IN RELATION TO ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
Introduction
This research reviews conflicts and controversies between National Parks Service administrators and politicians relative to the management of national parks lands. The focus with respect to such conflicts and controversies is on environmental protection issues. The findings of this review are presented in three separate discussions. The initial discussion deals with the general issues involved in this topic area. The second and their discussions consider these issues in greater detail in relation to the management of two national parks—Yellowstone and Denali.
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Through the public planningprocess, citizens finally have an opportunity to learn about and debatethese scientific and policy issues. Charles Sheldon, founder of the Denali National Park and Reservation,intended that the area serve mainly as a sanctuary for big-game birds thathe had observed in the area in the 19 6-19 8 period. Theissues that most affect environmental protection within the context of thetopic of this review are (1) geothermal development, (2) mining, and (3)wildlife management (Primm & Clark, 1966).Geothermal Development Geyser systems are fragile and, "once damaged, cannot be fixed. Runte, A. Offsetting this legislativepower, however, is the veto power of President Clinton (Milstein, 1993). Rural land use policies and rural poverty.Journal of American Planning Association, 5 , 326-334. Willcox, L. Parts of the park, however, extend into Montana. At higher elevations beyond the wettundra, a dry, mat-like alpine tundra covers the mountain slopes andridges. The Greater Yellowstonepolicy debate. (Ed.). This includes one-sided access to timber, grazing,water, and minerals rights for well-endowed interest groups, lucrativecommercial concessions to U.S. NPS scales back Crater Lakeplans. The National Parks Servicegenerally opposes such use, while many politicians, at the behest ofconstituents, press public administrators to permit such use (Bleich,1988). This activity dried up the nearby LaDuke HotSpring. According to critics of the National Park Service, this outcome "isnot surprising in historical perspective. Land and poverty in the UnitedStates: Insights and oversights. In addition, 2, abandonedmine sites are hazards to park visitors and the environment (Watkins,1992).Wildlife Management "Managing agencies have allowed a crisis to develop involving theYellowstone National Park bison. After years of research, the US Geological Survey (USGS) and theNational Park Service (NPS) concluded that the well was likely connected toMammoth Hot Springs-and maybe even to the Norris geyser system. 12). Ranchers are concerned about the disease and its economicimplications for their cattle operations. The Hickle government wanted to increase traffic-both tourist and commercial-within the Denali, and the state wanted toencourage resort development. "Preservationists fear that the dirt roads of the Denali will becomemajor paved thoroughfares if the industrialist prevail" (Milstein, 1993, p.29). Dodge, S. An Alaskan land grab? W. S582). The taming of the Denali.National Parks, 65, 2 -25. Many public companies are learningthat the adoption of environmentally sensitive business strategies andoperational procedures is the best defense against the imposition of suchpenalties. In the 199 s, approximately 6 , persons visit the Denali NationalPark and Reservation each year (Heacox, 1991). Horne, C. E. National Parks,67, 29-33. (1984). The implication of thisargument is that the National Parks Service Administrators "roll over" toevery overture made by the politicians. This action marks a major milestone in efforts toprotect the Denali. The essential contention is that "the businesscommunity, guided by self-interest, promoted public land expansion toinsure sufficient raw material stocks for future needs. Popper, F. McCarty, L. Genet was cited both for unsafe and environmentally harmfulpractices in an operation that was too heavily focused on getting touriststo the summit. Through a creative process of negotiation betweenNPS and the state of Montana and local citizens and residents, theYellowstone Compact was developed-it institutionalizes the role of sciencein decision making relative to geothermal resources in Montana. (1994, September-October). The area'senvironment was being damaged even at that early date to support thebooming mining towns in south central Alaska. C. S58 . Even another agency of the federal government hasattempted to thwart to objectives of the Clinton Administration and theNational Park Service. J. Land Economics, 71(1), 16-34. In fact, one should not be toquick off the mark to criticize the Congress, as congressional action has,on occasion, protected park environments against plans of the NationalParks Service. Oblivious to boundariesin Montana, many bison are shot on private lands. The park area was expanded in 1922.The park was extended further when its was redesignated as the DenaliNational Park and Reserve. The critics of the National Parks Systemcontend that it was created for and continues to be maintained primarilyfor the benefit of higher-income groups in the American population."Railroads magnates were quick to see the business opportunities inpromoting Yosemite" (Runte 199 ). Morethan 35 bison roam inside and outside the park. No oneagency or expert has all the answers, and everyone involved is trying tograpple with the issues and the risks under different mining scenarios.The public is likely to benefit from a fuller and more focused discussionof the scientific issues (Congressional Research Service, 1986). (1992, Summer). The National Park Service, for its part, introduced its "SustainableDesign Initiative" in 1993 to "affirm the agency's ethical andphilosophical obligations to the environment" (Dodge, 1994, p. Public land policy subsidizes the wealthy todayas it did in the past. Sheldon was able to persuadethe federal congress to safeguard more than 1.5 million acres in the Denaliarea as Mount McKinley National Park. (1994, January). Conflicts and Controversies in the Management of Denali National Park The Denali National Park and Preserve covers 9,375 square miles insouth-central Alaska. (1986). Themanagement of old-growth forests tend to be the most contentious of all ofthese issues (Congressional Research Service, 199 ). In Yellowstone, a beleaguered population that was almostextinct at the turn of the century has been successfully recovered. BioScience, 45(6), S79-S83. American Forests, 1 2(2), 42. (199 ). National Parks, 67(7-8), 12-14. "In 1986, areligious cult, the Church Universal and Triumphant (CUT), which owned someof these lands north of Yellowstone National Park, drilled a hot-water welland pumped it experimentally. Today the publiclands enrich corporate concessionaires in and around national parks"(Geisler, 1995, p. L. NationalParks, 68, 1 -12. National Research Council. AsAlaska's oil revenues continue to decline, however, one may expect thestate government, regardless of what political party is in power, to seeksome development of the wilderness is such action promises more jobs andhigher revenues. Contentious issues that have divided the political structure from thepublic administrators in the National parks Service in recent years includethe use of off-road vehicles in national parks. (1993, September/October). This visitation level is upfrom just 3 , in 1971. Although there is no evidence that bison transmitbrucellosis to cattle in the wild, the two species do overlap outside thepark. (1993, July-August). The Denali has an abundance of glaciers, all ofwhich originate on the slopes of the Alaska range that transverses the parkand preserve. In point of fact, this implicationis false, as public administrators in the National Parks Service makestrong efforts to protect the environmental integrity of lands under thejurisdiction of the National Parks System. Forexample, in Idaho, 24, acres of nonfederal land are still vulnerable togeothermal development inside the federally protected area. Issues Involved in Conflicts and Controversies Concerning National Parks Management in Relation to Environmental Protection Supporters of the nation's national parks and of the National ParksService contend that the wilderness aspects of national park lands "haveenriched the national character of the public at large" (Geisler, 1995, p.19). For example the question of transmission of brucellosisfrom bison to cattle is a driving force in the debate, but it has beenpoorly understood. On the otherhand, there has occurred much cooperation between the two groups over thelong-term. L. According to this line of reasoning, there exist no controversies andconflicts between public administrators in the National Parks Service andpoliticians representing commercial interests. To addressthis problem, Montana Representative Pat Williams and Senator Max Baucushave championed the Old Faithful Protection Act. Inretaliation, the state announced plans to build a new highway through thepark. Serial No. Lincoln, Nebraska: The University ofNebraska Press. Watkins, T. Under the agreement, theNational Park Service will be able to obtain further reductions inemissions if air pollution in the Denali area can be attributed to eitherof the two power plants. Currently, the State of Alaska is attempting to gain control of theroads within the Denali from the federal government ("Struggle ContinuesOver Denali Roads," 1994, p. Now, there is finally a climate where conservationistscan talk about scientific matters relating to bison population, migration,and other issues. Park prospects. Serial No. 19). The bison are an emblem of the wildnessof the West. Washington: University Press of America. Nash, R. The second andtheir discussions consider these issues in greater detail in relation tothe management of two national parks-Yellowstone and Denali. P. A number ofthe agencies involved are afraid of the consequences and the risks of thisventure. Environmentalists would like this number ofvisitors reduced to protect the area and its wildlife (Heacox, 1994). Federal land-management practices still forward privateeconomic commercial objectives more than they address broad nationaleconomic and social needs. Milstein, M. This perspective placed the ex-governor on a collision course with the Clinton Administration that has anobjective of preserving most of the state's wilderness. 1 1-35. The Federal Aviation Administration gave the Stateof Alaska two grants totaling $6 , to enlarge two existing airportsinside the Denali ("An Alaskan Land Grab?" 1994, p. The program, however, experiencedminor problems regarding support from the government and the private sector(Horne, 1996). Chrome on the range: Off-road vehicles on publiclands. (1991, November/December). The animals were able to adapt to the newenvironment in a short period of time. Thisobjective clashes with the desires of the Alaskan state government whichwants tourism to the Denali increased. The findings of thisreview are presented in three separate discussions. Conflicts & Controversies Between Public Administrators & Politicians Concerning National Parks Management in Relation to Environmental protection Introduction This research reviews conflicts and controversies between NationalParks Service administrators and politicians relative to the management ofnational parks lands. As environmental awareness and sensitivity to the consequences ofecological degradation continue to grow within the American public, and asa more environmentally active administration begins to flex its muscles,public companies in the United States are becoming aware of the need toprotect themselves against increasingly stern penalties for violations ofenvironmental laws and regulations. Yellowstone's geothermal hot-water aquifer extends outside theboundaries of National Park to the west into Idaho and north into Montana.Although some of the area in Idaho was protected from geothermaldevelopment, the lands to the north remain threatened. WildlifeConservation, 97, 66-73. Power plant owners have agreedin negotiations with the Department of the Interior to lower substantiallyemissions from the two power plants located in the Denali area ("AgreementWill Shield Denali From air Pollution," 1994). The coalition is making a major commitment to stop the proposaland is investing in a number of technical experts who have been discussingtheir findings and analysis in a cooperative fashion with agency experts"(Willcox, 1995, p. (1996, Spring). Wilderness and the American mind. Committee on Agriculture. In 1992, asan example, the National Park Service revoked the concession permit ofGenet Tours. (1982). S582). (1994, March/April). The Congress has tendedto be cool to this proposal. 22). First Session on Greater YellowstoneEcosystem. (1988). The mineral wealth trapped under the Alaskan tundra is atarget for corporation development. Yosemite. Wilderness, 55(197),18. On thereverse side of the coin, the Congress "refused to fund the National ParkService's plan to build a 6 -room hotel and visitor center complex inCrater Lake National Park" (McCarty, 1993, p. Primm, S. Wolf update. Some industrialists in the Denali area, however, are agreeing to actin ways that will protect the environment. Congressional action and public outcry were effective instopping CUT's pumping activities on an interim basis. Roads to ruin. But a comprehensive program toprotect Yellowstone's geothermal resources on all sides is still lacking.And, in Idaho and Wyoming, the geothermal system is still at some risk. After negativepublicity, combined with concerns about disease, the involved agencies wereforced to come together to develop a long-term plan to manage the growingbison population. 1 ). Runte, A. 12). 99-18. Opponents proclaim, however, that the distribution of theseintangible benefits across the country for all members of the population isuneven at best. Additionally, Wolves have been successfully reintroduced inYellowstone National Park. The new mine,called the New World Project, would be near this site and would develop animpoundment nearby nearly 1 times larger than that already designated aSuperfund site. NewHaven: Yale University Press. Above the river valleys, dense forests gradually give way tovast stretches of wet tundra. Environment, 36, 22. Washington: National AcademyPress. NationalParks, 68(9-1 ), 24-25. Conflicts and Controversies in the Management of Yellowstone National Park Yellowstone National Park is situated primarily on the northwesterncorner of Wyoming. (1996, May). The Hickle government even wanted to usefederal funds to build the highway through the Denali that is opposed bythe federal government. (1994, March-April). Ecology Law Quarterly, 15(1), 159-187. The management and administration of the federal lands todayreveal significant vestiges of privileged arrangements with special-interest groups. (1995, June). 18). (199 ). Heacox, K. Thus, preservation,at least for the present, continues to be the byword for the Denali. There is already a Superfund site on theborder of Yellowstone National Park leaching harmful chemicals and heavymetals (e.g., cadmium, iron, and arsenic) into park waters. (1994, May/June). Congressional Research Service. Anderson, T. Multiple use conflicts over multipleuse areas. There are 757 patented and 1,342 unpatented mining claims in 13 United States national park units, including the Grand Canyon, OlympicNational Park, and Glacier National Park. References Agreement will shield Denali from air pollution. There is also potential for contamination reaching intoWyoming through the Clarks Fork, Wyoming's only wild and scenic river.This proposal is a crisis and a Superfund site in the making. In this case, the dialogue has been productive, as the issues arecomplex and there are enormous uncertainties and gaps in the data. Hearing held in Washington, DC, 2 and 22 June 1989. Setting priorities for landconservation. The focus with respect to such conflicts andcontroversies is on environmental protection issues. Summary Over the years, conflicts and controversies have, at times,characterized the relationship between the Congress and the publicadministrators of the National Park Service. A combination of the state-negotiated compact and thefederal law would likely both prevent development of underground hot-waterresources and establish a role for science in the ongoing debate on hotwater, related to Yellowstone's geothermal features" (Willcox, 1995, p.S58 ).Mining A mining operation has been proposed to be located next to YellowstoneNational Park's northeast corner by the Canadian corporation Noranda."Conservationists and some agencies, such as the US EnvironmentalProtection Agency (EPA) and NPS, see a threat from gold mine drainage,tailings, and water pollution. (1994). Thus, according to critics, the National Parks System lands have not,"despite their designation as public, escaped private market forces,commercial use, private development, and de facto ownership by the rich andpowerful. NPSdetermined that this pumping of hot water could have adverse effects on theflow of hot water to Mammoth and possibly the geysers to the south.Unfortunately, NPS did not have the tools to change management of landsoutside the park. The Republican-controlled congress inWashington, however, is expected to oppose any action that would preservethe environment at the expense of development. This absurd threat was made, however, by the since defeated Hickle.The Alaskan government under Hickle apparently was unable to comprehend therelationship between wilderness and wildlife to roads. The federal government has proposed an alternative to increased motorvehicle traffic in the Denali-restored rail service (Runte, 1994).Restored rail service could increase tourist access to the park andreservation with much less harm to the environment than would be associatedwith highway development. National Research Council. H. The Republican-controlled Congress both supports industrialdevelopment plans for the Denali and supports a policy to sell somenational parks through a privatization plan. A United States district court, however,denied the state ownership of the existing road leading to the Denali. Green by design. Alaska's Yellowstone. Long-term solutionswere needed, however, and the issues relating to water development werescientifically complex. Bleich, J. NPS, USGS,and other agencies and academic institutions now participate in a technicaltask force that advises Montana's State Department of Natural Resources,which makes decisions on water permits. (3rd ed.). Trains for parks: A second chance.National Parks, 68, 3 -34. Congressional Research Service. and foreign corporations, and privaterecreational complexes on or near national parks, forests, and seashores"(Geisler, 1995, p. Former Alaska Governor Walter Hickle (he was defeated in the 1994general election) envisioned industrial development of the Alaskanwilderness, including much of the Denali. From its inception, the NationalParks system expressed patrician land use planning views on a nationalscale" (Geisler, 1995, p. Shrubby plants are found on the tundra thatis in places underlain by permafrost. The initial discussiondeals with the general issues involved in this topic area. Heacox, K. Any human accessmust be carefully controlled if the attractions of the Denali to tourists,which the state government want to encourage because of tourist spending,are not to be destroyed. The division between the twogroups appears to have widened over the past four years. The National ParksService then set about developing "a modified plan that would reduce theimpact on the park's environment" (McCarty, 1993, p. Management of old-growthforests of the Pacific Northwest in joint hearings before the Subcommitteeon Forests, Family Farms, and Energy of the Committee on Agriculture, andthe Subcommittee on National Parks and Public Lands of the Committee onInterior and Insular Affairs, House of Representatives, 1 1st Congress.First Session. The Denali is crossed by several rivers, and lakes dot thelandscape. (1994, January-February). Similar charges have been made inrelation to both Yellowstone National Park and Adirondack National Park(Nash, 1982; Popper 1984). Scientificunderstanding of these systems is critical to their protection.Conservation's role in this issue was to help create a politicalenvironment where science could have a clearer voice in the debate"(Willcox, 1995, p. Hearing held in Washington, DC, 24 October 1985. Multiple uses, including timber, grazing, andmining activities, also create divisions between National Parks Serviceadministrators and many members of Congress (Anderson, 1994). National Parks, 68, 13-16. Struggle continues over Denali roads. 19). Noneof the other eight geyser systems in the world that have been depressurizedand altered by development have been repaired. "On this point, various commissions advising thegovernment on matters of land acquisition have noted that federal lands arenot well distributed over the continent nor easily accessible to urbanminorities and lower income citizens" (National Research Council, 1993, p.9). The National Park Service isconcerned because many of the so-called ecotourist agencies operating inAlaska do not follow environmentally sound business practices. Geisler, C. 24). Yellowstone contains theworld's largest remaining undamaged geyser system, yet it is not fullyprotected from uses that could harm the hydrothermic system. If passed, it wouldprovide solid protection of the geothermal resources against undergroundhot-water pumping. To be able to develop and adopt such strategies and procedures,however, it is necessary to both become aware of the various aspects ofenvironmental protection that hold the potential to exert a significantimpact on the operation of public companies, and to develop organizationalphilosophies and cultures to support environmental protection.Unfortunately, the majority of public companies in the United Statescontinue to expend most of their energies in the area of environmentalconcern on efforts contesting environmental laws and regulations. Oversight hearing before theSubcommittee on Public Lands and the Subcommittee on National Parks andRecreation of the Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, House ofRepresentatives, 99th Congress. A., & Clark, T. Development issues also are divisive. The Yellowstone experience: The use ofscience, with humility, in public policy. (1993). While theRepublican Party captured the federal congress in the 1994 generalelection, a Democrat captured the Alaska governorship. The National Parks Serviceadvocates the acquisition or establishment of buffer zone around nationalparks wherein no development would be permitted. Policy Sciences, 29, 137-166. Agrowing minority of American public companies are actively implementingprograms designed to transform themselves into environmentally goodcorporate citizens ("Agreement Will Shield Denali From air Pollution,"1994). (1995, February). Hopefully, the public choices aboutbison population size and migration outside the park will be decided in aclimate shaped by scientific data and intelligent debate" (Willcox, 1995,p.
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