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DOMINICAN REPUBLIC.
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History & evolution of social, economic & political systems, poverty, class conflict, relations with Haiti; focuses on ethnic & gender issues & human rights.... More...
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Paper Abstract:
History & evolution of social, economic & political systems, poverty, class conflict, relations with Haiti; focuses on ethnic & gender issues & human rights.

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ETHNICITY, GENDER AND HUMAN RIGHTS IN THE DOMINICAN REPUBLIC This research paper discusses ethnicity, gender and human rights in the Dominican Republic. The ethnic origins of its peoples have played an important role in shaping its social, political and economic institutions. Racial tensions have uniquely bedeviled relations between the dominant mulatto majority and blacks, especially those of Haitian origin. Gender conflicts have not been especially significant because of the dominance of machismo culture, but women have a degree of economic power. Human rights have been largely ignored and are emerging as a significant issue as the Republic begins to modernize and to strive for greater political maturity and social justice during the post-Trujillo period. Ethnic and Racial Composition

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. The Constitutionof 1966, for example, guaranteed all citizensthe right to due process, public trial, the right of habeas corpus, theright against self-incrimination and against double jeopardy (Wiarda, 1969,p. Economist, pp. (1995, November 29). The current population of the Dominican Republic is about seven and ahalf million, roughly 73 percent of whom are mulatto, 16 percent white and11 percent black in 1989 (Haggerty, 1991, p. The Dominican national anthem contains the refrain: "No nation hasits freedom earned if it in servile slavery kneels" (Martin, 1966, p. The Dominicans, among most the cheerful and gentle people in theworld, according to observers like Wiarda and Martin, say somos infelices,we are unlucky, and engage in ironic commentaries on the sad state of theiraffairs, called chisme. (1996). (Ed.). Echevarria says that "race mayexplain why" (1996, p. 1 72). After William O'Neil, consultant to theNational Coalition for Haitian Refugees, told the U.S. 61). Race and politics where America began.America, 17 , pp. (1994, May 21). Gaffney, J. Public protests in the Republicand abroad against that process in the 1994 elections led to a Pact forDemocracy which was mediated by the Organization for American States andthe Catholic Church in the Republic. Trujillo gathered around him a group offamilies which were beholden to him. In July, 1993,the U. Hidden from sight: cane cutters inthe DR. America, 173, pp. 64). Wiarda (1969) says that "Dominicans are fond of pointing tothe poverty of their European traditions and tend to look down on what theyconsider the primitive and uncivilized Haitians. A middle class has emerged in the Dominican Republic in recentdecades in response to higher levels of education, exposure to othercultures, primarily as a result of migration the United States, and thefirst steps toward the modernization of the economy. S. (1995, November 18). Dominicans have longand unpleasant memories of previous foreign interventions after theRepublic first became independent as Spanish Haiti in 1821, the repressiveand brutal Haitian occupation of 1822-1844, re-annexation by Spain in 1861-1865 and the occupation by the U.S. (1966). Dominican diary. Dominican Republic. (1992, February 24). Griffin, R. 71). (1965). Frequent strikes and public protests against rising prices andelectricity shortages in the late 8 s and early 9 s led to periodic policecrackdowns. xxviii). Congressman Robert Torricelli called for arevision of Dominican sugar quotas and a reduction in American aid(Griffin, 1995, April 29, pp. Old man in no hurry. 1 ). Bosch points out that people of the middle class which emerged fromthe Trujillo era were unstable, disenchanted and "submerged in a sea oftribulations" (1966, p. Haitian Problem Historically, relations between the Republic and the authorities inHaiti, ever since the island was divided between France and Spain in 1697,have been poor. These demonstrations continuedthrough 1995. 217). The unfinished experiment. 68). References Anderson, G. 185). 1 -12. Gaffney (1994) said that "racism exists and isgrowing" (p. The old Spanish tradition that nice girls shouldretain their virginity until marriage continues. According to Haggerty, "upward migrationwas possible for the dark-skinned person who acquired education and wealth"(1991, p. Cotter, H. Their fortunes are based on land, sugar,tobacco, rum; on cattle and rum and rice and coffee and cacao; on trade andfinance" (p. The press has generally been free since 1961. . The Spanish and other Europeans intermarriedwith blacks. Racial tensions have mounted under thestimulus of extreme poverty. Congress in 1991that malnourished Haitian children were held under guard in appallingsanitary conditions, U.S. Ethnic and Racial Composition Ever since Columbus landed in 1492 on the eastern half of the island,which he named Espanola (Hispaniola), which today comprises the DominicanRepublic, it has been subjected to a variety of foreign influences. (1992, February 24). 4). 1 71). Nevertheless, the Dominican Republic has always sufferedfrom a rigid, hierarchical social structure in which "lighter skin wasassociated with higher social and economic status" (Haggerty, 1991, p. (1991, February 16). He and his cronies controlled a largeportion of the nation's wealth. Dominican Republic and Haiti countrystudies. They enjoy the right to vote. Spanish is the common language. Little vestige of them remains. Their nationhas a long way to go before it can be called a civilized society. 1 -11. The Dominican government has been censured by the UnitedNations Commission on Human Rights for its treatment of the Haitians (Reid,1992, p. 52). Even though the last Balaguer administration gained somecontrol over its finances, inflation declined to two percent in 1993 andGDP growth increased to 4.3 percent in 1994, GDP growth in the period 198 -1993 (2.8 percent) only slightly outpaced the growth in the population (2.1percent) (Running dry, 1991, p. Wiarda (1969) said: "Dominican social structure remainsin many respects semi-feudal with a few, lighter-skinned elements at thetop enjoying most of the wealth and power and the many dark-colored peopleat the bottom having almost nothing" (p. The sharp contrast between rich and poor was dramatized by Balaguer'sconstruction of a $1 million lighthouse to celebrate the 5 thanniversary of Columbus' arrival. Persistent outages ofelectricity and rising food and fuel prices occurred in the late 198 s andearly 199 s. The difficulty isthat political freedom has only limited chances for success in a countrywith a history of fixed elections, a strong secret police, corruption,nepotism and appalling poverty. Washington, D.C.: Library of Congress, pp. 18). Racism, foreign money dominate'clean' Dominican elections. Gender Not much can be said about the lot of women in the Republic exceptthat they are submerged in a society in which male dominance, machismo, andthe relegation of women to a subordinate economic status is commonplace(Haggerty, 1991, pp. 8 ). In the 1996 presidential elections, Balaguer refused tosupport the candidacy of the former mayor of Santo Domingo, Jose FranciscoPena Gomez, who is of Haitian origin. Darkness in the Dominican Republic.America, 173, pp. 23-24). Former U.S. Marines (1916-1924) as well as sporadicinterventions in the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries by the French and theBritish. . (1991). 57-58). ETHNICITY, GENDER AND HUMAN RIGHTS IN THE DOMINICAN REPUBLIC This research paper discusses ethnicity, gender and human rights inthe Dominican Republic. 52). 8-1 . London:Europa Publications, pp. Martin, J. 48-49. They have ruled theRepublic --furnished its Presidents and generals, its finance and business--for more than a hundred years. It was common knowledge during the Balaguer period that the resultsof most presidential elections were fixed. Other Aspects of Culture Some commentators, such as Wiarda, say "that it is difficult to . The Dominicans still talkof the Haitian invasions of the nineteenth century and of the barbarism andcruelty of the invaders" (p. Wiarda described the middle classas "divided and fragmented" and "not a unifying force in society" (1969, p.1 1). 48). Reid says that the Republic is a product ofits history, one "that implies a deep division --a division between a fewindividuals with the ruthlessness to aspire to power and domination . 22-24. Tensions have eased since the election in 1996 of a New York-educated lawyer, Leonel Fernandez, who has promised to govern in an openstyle. (1966). C26. 1 76). Racial and Social Divide: Post-Trujillo After Trujillo was assassinated in 1961, the country was convulsed innear chaos and was on the brink of civil war leading to the Americanmilitary intervention in 1965. . 11; Gaffney, 1994, p. The blacks camedirectly or indirectly from Africa as slaves. Theytotalled in 1989 about 2 , (Haggerty, 1991, p. Most Haitians in the Republic have become a permanentlysegregated underclass to whom are offered "only servility, squalor andhumiliation" (Gaffney, 1994, p. In 1994, per capita income in the Republicwas only $132 , among the lowest in the hemisphere (Europa Year Book, 1996,p. Balaguer's reaction in June, 1991 wasto deport all Haitians under the age of 16 or over 6 which Griffin sayswas "executed in an abrupt and harsh manner" (1995, p. In 1937, Trujillo's forces murdered anestimated 2 , Haitians along the border (Haggerty, 1991, p. xvii-xxv and 1-277. New York: Delacorte Press. 9). One sign that things are changing is the recent exhibition ofthe paintings of 3 Dominican artists at the Americas Society and theSpanish Institute in New York City, including Jose Garcia Cordero's "BoatPeople IV," which drew good reviews from art critics (Cotter, 1996, p.C26). Women play an importantrole in generating income on family farms which gives them some leverage.Females have been afforded increased opportunities to work outside the homeas domestics in the growing tourism industry and in the apparel factoriesin the tax-free zones for foreign investment established by Balaguer;however, they generally work for lower wages than men and without benefits(Anderson, 1995, p. It is centered in theprofessional and merchant classes, the civil service and the army, whichwas largely drawn from sources other than the ruling families. Bosch, J. . Anderson says that an acute shortage of low-incomehousing exists and Gaffney says that 45 percent of the population lacksadequate nutrition (Anderson, 1995, p. Running dry. Senator WilliamFulbright said on April 15, 1965 that "the United States turned its back onsocial revolution in Santo Domingo and associated itself with a corrupt andreactionary military oligarchy" (Bosch, 1966, p. Ambassador Martin (1966)described them as follows: "The oligarchy . 133). 1 ). 74).Nevertheless, even sympathetic foreign observers such as Szulc noted that"the nation had been shattered by the brutal Trujillo dictatorship andcould not achieve stability" (1965, p. 72). A dominant social class, primarily white or light-skinned, has evolved over time from the early colonos or hacenderos, whoowned the large sugar cane, coffee, cacoa and tobacco plantations, andmerchants to the modern economic and social elite, which now includes majorindustrialists and resort owners. .and a quiescent people who have learned to survive whatever adversitiesbreak over their heads" (1993, p. 65-66, Wiarda, 1969, p. 1 71-1 72). 217, 232-235. Dominican politics have been dominated since 1966 and until hisrecent retirement at the age of 89 by Ricardo Joaquin Balaguer, a formerTrujillo protege and moderate, and his Reformista (PR) party. Opinions differ as to whether the Republicwas in fact headed toward a left-wing regime under Juan Bosch Gavino, theleader of the Partido Revolucionario Dominicana (PRD). The Dominican Republic. 12). At firstunder Balaguer (1966-1978) (1986-1995) and later PRD Presidents (1978-1986), economic progress was made, but after the late 197 s, falling sugarprices and the loss of sugar markets and rising fuel prices coupled withimprovident government fiscal policies produced high unemployment and highinflation which reached 1 per cent per annum in 199 (Haggerty, 1991, p.82; Old man, 1994, p. . Haggerty, R. 217). As the Haitian economy performed even more poorly than the Dominicaneconomy, larger numbers of Haitian laborers have emigrated to the Republic.Another 3 , have entered as political refugees since 1991 (Griffin,1995, p, 24). The Dominican Republic has, therefore, been fortunate in not havinglarge unassimilated minorities. Race Relations and Social Structure Racial discrimination of the type encountered into societies withlarge racial minorities, such as the United States, does not exist as suchin the Dominican Republic. .determine a distinctive Dominican culture" and that "literary and artisticlife lagged behind that of other Latin American nations" (1969, pp. U.S. All of these groups haveblended into Dominican society through intermarriage and blood, creating ablend which Dominicans call sancocho, a local dish with many ingredients.The largest unassimilated minority is the creole and black Haitians whoinhabit the area along the border with Haiti, make up most of the sugarcane cutters and/or are crowded into the shanty towns of the major citiesof Santo Domingo (the capital) and Santiago de los Caballeros. (1969). 34. Most of the Republic's political leaders have had some mixedblood and some, such as the dictator, Ulises Heureaux (1882-1899), havebeen primarily of African origin. Europa Year Book, Volume I. Echevarria, V. 34; Old man, 1994, pp. 83). 11). Human Rights For all practical purposes, "basic human rights all but ceased toexist" during the Trujillo regime which "was a true modern totalitarianstate, complete with racism, espionage apparatus, torture chambers, andmurder factories" (Wiarda, 1969, p.131; Martin, 1966, p. Reid, A. Men in the middle and upper classesoften keep mistresses. Nation, pp. (1996, June 21). Economist, p. Some but very little progress was made in land reform andexpenditures on social services were increased. The social structure of the Republic dates back to the Spanishcolonial era in which white soldiers and early settlers were awarded royalgrants or encomiendas, control over large tracts of land and the indian andblack inhabitants. Most international observers thoughtthat the 1996 presidential election, which was won by Fernandez by a marginof two percent, was reasonably honest. 24). Conclusion The society and culture of the Dominican Republic is graduallyemerging in more civilized form, despite its tragic history of repressionand economic exploitation. New York: Praeger. Lawyers' Committee for Human Rights said there had been "littleimprovement in the treatment of Haitians on the plantations" (Griffin,1995, p. A. In the twentieth century, Haitianimmigrants entered the country in large numbers, most of whom worked ascane cutters in the sugar fields. 74). 48-49 and EuropaYear Book, 1996, pp. The Dominican Republic has had many constitutions. demonstration" against plans to celebrate the 5 thanniversary of Columbus' arrival (p. The original inhabitants, the Arowak or Tainos and Caribe indians,were stamped out by the Spanish by the early 16th century through killings,malnutrition and disease. Bosch said that "the Dominicanpeople have been victimized by national weaknesses of monumentalproportions" (1966, p. . (1996, September). 4). consists of perhaps a scoreof families related by blood and marriage . Rosenfeld, M. New Yorker, pp.57-75. Europa Yearbook (1996) says that "in late September 1993, aDominican human rights leader, Rafael Efrain Ortiz, was shot dead by thepolice during a . Official violence has greatly declined in recent decades but Balaguermade extensive, if subtler, use of the secret police to surveil hisopponents. He also said that the Spanish heritage hadlargely disabled them because "working is not for the son of adistinguished family" (1966, pp. Overtaken by events. Dominicans and the wall ofshame. In the arts, the society is best known internationally for its dance,the merengue. In the 2 th century it has been ofstrategic importance to the United States because of its proximity to thePanama Canal and Fidel Castro's Cuba. The middle class had little room for growthin a nation ruled by most of its history by military strongmen,(caudillos), which Martin summarized as "civil war, bloodshed, betrayal,corruption, government by assassination, coups and counter-coups, plots andcounter-plots, chaos and anarchy" (1966, p. (1994, January 29). Hispanic, pp. They deserve better and perhaps the gradualmodernization of the economy and higher educational levels will eventuallybring political maturity and greater respect for human rights. New York: Praeger.----------------------- 1 A Caribbean take on modern styles. Waiting for Columbus. The most important influences on thedevelopment of Dominican culture and society have, however, been ofEuropean (primarily Spanish) and Afro-Caribbean (the descendants of slavesbrought from there after the early 16th century to provide cheap labor forthe sugar cane plantations) origin. Illiteracy among adults is still high (16.7percent in 1994), health access is poor (a 2 :1 physician-patient ratioand only 76 percent of the people attend secondary school (Europa YearBook, 1996, p. J. They live in primitive shacks (bateys), largely without floors,electricity and running water. 114 and116). J. It had to be surrounded by a 'wall ofshame' to prevent foreign tourists from seeing the surrounding urbansqualor (Rosenfeld, 1994, p. Garden City: Doubleday. Theisland was situated for many centuries at the crossroads of important traderoutes between the Old and New World. More than9 percent of Dominicans share a common religion, Roman Catholicism. 33). Tensions between Haiti and the Republic have eased since theAmericans restored Jean-Bertrand Aristide to power in Haiti. ix). 39). Wiarda, H. Szulc, T. 1 69-1 82. . Divorce from civilmarriages and free unions is permissible, but the women generally get onlythe house, no child support or alimony. Conditions for these workers in the cane fields andrefineries, most of which are run by the Dominican government, are verypoor. The ethnic origins of its peoples have played animportant role in shaping its social, political and economic institutions.Racial tensions have uniquely bedeviled relations between the dominantmulatto majority and blacks, especially those of Haitian origin.Gender conflicts have not been especially significant because of thedominance of machismo culture, but women have a degree of economic power.Human rights have been largely ignored and are emerging as a significantissue as the Republic begins to modernize and to strive for greaterpolitical maturity and social justice during the post-Trujillo period. B. Haggertysaid that "from the perspective of the late 198 s, there appeared littleprospect for major improvement in the quality of life for most Dominicans"(1991, p. This interlocking elite, which is linkedby close ties of family, kinship and the godparent (compadrazgo) system,largely controls the country. 23). During this period and into the 199 s, the lotof the average Dominican did not improve to any measurable extent. The great majority ofthe whites came from Spain with minor infusions of French, English, Jewsfrom Europe, Italians, Lebanese and other Arabs, Chinese and Japanese and,more recently, North Americans (Wiarda, 1969, p. NewYork Times, p. Itsdevelopment was significantly retarded during the rule of dictator RafaelLeonidas Trujillo (193 -1961).

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