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PUBLIC POLICY.
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Examines process of policy formulation as product of govt., theories & models, analysis, empirical methods, goals, evaluating alternatives, implementation.... More...
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Paper Abstract:
Examines process of policy formulation as product of govt., theories & models, analysis, empirical methods, goals, evaluating alternatives, implementation.
Paper Introduction:
Introduction
Governments provide goods and services, and can produce goods and services, as well. Such goods and services are generally in support of broader public policies which are put in place by the federal government, or state or local governments. In theory, the formation of public policy occurs prior to the introduction of any other programs that may be developed, but it has only been since the 1970s that serious and scholarly study has been directed toward the formation of public policy. Generally, public policy is concerned with the application of formal methods and programs that may be put in place in the public sector, and the ways in which policies are shaped and implemented has political overtones as well as ramifications for public managers. This research explores the area of public policy, including its deve
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This is an area which has ledto welfare "reform" in the last few years and which has led politicians tointroduce time limits on welfare recipients. Public agencies in particularoften have several different missions and need to respond to differentinterest groups and clients. 31 ). Resource allocation in publicpolicy. 397). In these situations, the monitoring of a particular trafficsituation is conducted for the purpose of forecasting future trafficcontrol needs and determining what type of control devices are appropriate. Decision tools for public policy.Journal of Economic Issues, pp. 2 . Program managers are typically concerned with specific programs ratherthan groups of similar programs. There are critics of the incrementalist approach who argue that justbecause something has been done in the past, it may not be valid for futureactivity. 393). Some analysts hold that empirical decision making models are the keyto successful public policy development, and there is little doubt thatthis is the case in some situations, such as traffic monitoring andcontrol. Here, analysts type public policiesaccording to subsystems, with four subsystems emerging as dominant in theAmerican political system: redistribution, distributive, constituent andregulative (Henry, 1995, p. In this way,policy flows downward from the elite to the masses with little or no inputfrom those directly affected by various policies. All public policy development should include establishing evaluationcriteria and the generation of alternative approaches so that the bestalternative can be selected. Facilitative skills include policy,planning and managerial skills which are used to improve the making ofpolicy and thus improve the quality of the outcome associated with publicpolicy (Clark, 1996, p. Evaluating alternative policies is considered by some to be the mostcritical part of policy formulation (Wilkie, 1997, p. Wall StreetJournal, p. Despite the difficulty of defining public policy,there are guidelines which can be followed in terms of how to develop,analyze, evaluate and implement public policy. While it is not generally advisableto simply eradicate a series of policies and implement radical newsolutions, such actions are occasionally appropriate, and it is up topolicy administrators to determine when it is, and is not, appropriate totake such drastic action. There is no one precise definition of public policy. Demonstration projects are so-called pilot programs which areused to demonstrate how well a proposed program works in real-worldenvironments. (1996, December). In this way, the federal policy of the 193 s whichresulted in the New Deal came about as the federal government sought toincrease employment and boost the overall economic situation in the UnitedStates (Crihfield & McGuire, 1997, p. In addition to the output approaches to policy implementation, Henryidentifies six areas of emphasis associated with the implementation ofpublic policy from the process standpoint: elitism, groups, systems,institutionalist, neoinstitutionalist and organized anarchy (1995, p. Once the goals are known and evaluation criteria are specified, itshould be possible to develop a set of alternatives which can be used toachieve the stated goals. The analyst is typicallyresponsible for providing the first detailed statement of the problem andshould be able to estimate the time and resources necessary to provideadditional in-depth analysis (Walters & Sudweeks, 1996, p. L. (1997, July). There are techniques which can be usedfor generating alternatives, including brainstorming and writing outvarious scenarios. Clark, N. For these managers, evaluative researchis often useful and certainly a popular evaluation technique. 39 -411. Conclusion One of the most difficult aspects of public policy consideration restswith the issue of how to define public policy itself. Redistributive policies are those whichare highly ideological and highly charged from an emotional standpoint forthose groups involved; often, the issue involves the transfer of propertyfrom one group to another (hence the name). Regional Science & UrbanEconomics, pp. It was during this time that empirical methods weredeveloped to assist in the decision making process and policy analysisshifted from being considered a replacement for the political process tobeing a supplement to the process. This research explores the area ofpublic policy, including its development, analysis, evaluation andimplementation. When approached from this view, public policy can bebetter understood in terms of the reasons behind the specific actions takenby a specific government. Developing research on public policyand marketing. There is also the problem that developinga policy alternative is one task, but implementing the policy is quiteanother, and many policies which go through exhaustive planning programsare never implemented at all (Henry, 1995, p. Duringthis time, the availability of large computers and a belief among theAmerican population as a whole that science could answer, or at leastaddress, issues across a broad spectrum, increased interest in publicpolicy analysis. Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, pp. 614-62 . (1997, January). Implementation of Public Policy Henry identifies three approaches to public policy implementation froman output standpoint: incremental, rational and strategic planning (1995,p. In addition, achange in the external circumstances which led to the policy implementationin the first place may change which warrants a discontinuation ormodification of the policy in question. In this way, policy makers are able to determine whichsolutions are not feasible from a political standpoint, and which meritadditional attention. Journal of Socio-Economics, pp. Since the 197 s,increasing numbers of political scientists and public administrators havebeen concerned not only with the process of public administration, but withthe content of what is being administrated (Henry, 1995, p. 952). Policy as Output Some analysts suggest that policy is the output of government; thatis, that while governments provide goods and services, they do so accordingto policies announced previously at some time. Here, the ideais that once alternative policies are identified, each can be evaluated bydeciding the particular points in favor or against each of the proposals.The goal here is to determine which alternatives are feasible and which arenot, what the costs are for each alternative, and which are politicallyinadvisable. The Vietnam War is often cited as an example of anincrementalist public policy which was ill-advised and which demonstrateshow depending on the judgment of previous decision makers (Kennedy movingforward with Eisenhower's strategy, Johnson continuing Kennedy's strategy,and Nixon escalating Johnson's strategy before the policy was reversed) canresult in poor decisions being perpetuated regardless of the politicalparty in power. (1997, March 12). 314). By inserting an evaluation criteria process early in thedevelopment of policy, policy makers can avoid later criticism that notenough consideration has been given as to how policies are effectivelyevaluated, or what constitutes an effective evaluation technique for aparticular policy (Bailar, 1997, p. (1997, Spring). (1997, July 15). A. This approachto policy assumes that there is no one process which can explain how allpolicies are created, and that the process may well differ even among thesame politicians and bureaucrats when operating in different circumstances. Uninvited guests. At the same time, strategicplanning builds on what has been done in the past and assumes that any planwhich is put into place will not exist in a vacuum, but instead will besubject to modification based on how the implementation is actuallyaccomplished. Inaddition, the weights which are assigned to particular preferences aresubjective in nature and may not represent the weights that society as awhole puts on particular values. This affects individuals as political entities, such asreapportionment, but does not single out individuals for specific action(Henry, 1995, pp. These alternatives may vary considerably, butthere is no one way to develop alternatives. At this point, the extent to which strategic planning has beenembraced by the public sector is unclear, although it has gained widespreadacceptance and implementation in the private sector. It is the overarching philosophy which guides the development of specificpolicy programs and has political overtones which can be used bypoliticians as well as bureaucrats to generate public support (ordisagreement) for specific programs. The policy stream is where the various alternatives are formulated anda preferred alternative is eventually determined (Henry, 1995, p. 312). Analysis inthis area tends to be descriptive rather than prescriptive, although it ispossible to use various models to identify how implementation of aparticular process might lead to particular policies in certain situations. Three major types of evaluation are of interest to policy makers asopposed to program managers: program impact evaluation; demonstrationprojects; and, field experiments (Clark, 1996, p. 132). The coming revolution in issuesmanagement. Pragmatism: Exploring publicadministration's policy imprint. It isoften difficult to define problems in the public sectors where policyobjectives may not be clear or where policy objectives may seek to achieveseveral different objectives at one time. This stream is oftencompleted without much attention so that the process itself can remainhidden from public view and scrutiny. The result during this time and the 197 s was an emphasison processing statistical data relating to public programs and inincreasingly more sophisticated and complex information related to publicpolicy. Thus the weatherbureau can issue its bulletins and services without another group directlypaying for them. (1995). Instead, policyadministrators should be familiar with the various approaches which can beused, and be able to choose appropriate methods when faced with policydecisions. 295). While it isgenerally accepted that the legislative branch of government is the mostsusceptible to pressure from special interest groups, the recentcontroversy regarding the Clinton administration's fund raising effortshighlights the fact that the executive branch is also open to influencefrom various groups. There is often a great deal ofsecrecy surrounding the redistribution process, which has led to thesituation that this is often a policy area generally ignored by socialscientists. Despitethese drawbacks, strategic planning in the public sector is seen as a wayin which public administration can become more uniform regardless of thelevel at which it is practiced, and which offers hope to society as a wholethat a more systematic and quantitative approach can be taken to the publicpolicy issue (Henry, 1995, p. 953). (1997, March-April). The rationalist model is largely a reaction to the incremental model.In the rationalist approach, all of the value preferences in a society aredetermined and assigned a relative weight. Public deliberation. Henry, N. The scientific skills include:information structuring (designed to clarify policy-related ideas andexamine their relevance to the external environment); informationcollection skills (which provide the tools for making accurateobservations); and information analysis skills (which guide analysts towardconclusions from the evidence). Given the wide range of options available topolicy makers, the emphasis is on making decisions which are acceptable,not necessarily on finding a single "best" solution. Policy as Process It is also possible to view public policy as a process. The individuals likely to beinvolved at this point include career bureaucrats, staff members, academicsand scholars, and members of special interest groups. The last policy type whichis included in the neo-institutionalist policy group is the constituentpolicy. 113-116. Such goods and services are generally in support ofbroader public policies which are put in place by the federal government,or state or local governments. In the elite/mass model, Henry suggests that public administrators arebeing viewed more as "the establishment" and less as public servants.According to this emphasis, public policy is perceived to be in the handsof a few (the elite) who are able to maintain their status because ofgeneral apathy and disinterest among the public as a whole. Another objective might be to raise the performance ofparticipants in terms of grades or standardized testing. Once the goals have been identified, it is necessary to find ways todetermine how they can be measured. In the 198 s, public policy analysis entered a new phase during whichpolicy analysis was used to facilitate policy decisions rather than merelydescribe them. Once the evaluation criteria have been established or identified, datacollection can begin and data comparison and compiling can take place.These are critical parts of the evaluation process that should followeasily if appropriate criteria have been established. 4 2). J. Thus the income tax which wasoriginally implemented to pay for World War I took on additional weight asthe years progressed, and the rationing of gasoline and other scarce goodsduring World War II was discontinued when the war was concluded (Crihfield& McGuire, 1997, p. Strategic planning also blends quantitative and qualitativeevaluation tools so that the end result capitalizes on the wealth of datawhich is available, but which also captures the human and political side ofpolicy issues (Henry, 1995, p. 449). 124-132. 114). The political stream iswhere (using the earlier example of how policies are developed), evaluationcriteria are formed and the problem is defined in terms which support boththe evaluation criteria and the political ends which policy makers hope toachieve. Program andpolicy evaluations can often err on the side of statistical informationbecause it is easier to collect and manipulate then qualitativeinformation, but many public policies do not lend themselves to onlyquantitative analysis (Shields, 1996, p. 5 ). From a political standpoint, it is also generallyeasier to modify an existing policy than to develop and implement anentirely new approach. L. The last general step in public policy formation takes place aspolicies which are implemented are monitored in terms of their performance. In thesesituations, program managers are interested in determining what type ofprogram works best under which circumstances. 12-14. The institutionalist model has fallen from favor in recent years, butHenry suggests that the emphasis in today's political environment on movingaway from "big" government may see a return to favor of this model (1995,p. 297). Some of the empirical methods used in policy analysis include:benefit cost analysis, in which the optimum choice is derived from discretealternatives without probabilities; decision theory, in which the optimumchoice is made with contingent probabilities taken into account; optimumlevel analysis, in which an optimum choice is found when the extremes ofdoing too much or too little are deemed undesirable; allocation theory,which uses a mix of optimal choices; and, time optimization models whichare designed to minimize time consumption (Lave & Elias, 1997, p. Evaluation of Public Policy Evaluation of public policy often is associated with evaluation ofindividual programs in order to determine whether specific programs aremeeting the objectives for which they were intended. The development of any policy begins with an analysis of whatis intended to be accomplished and the current situation that exists in theenvironment at large. This stream is influenced by media, the dynamicsof government, which party is in power at the time, external variables andeven which bureaucrats are in a particular agency. 617). In this way, the process that the president uses to develop foreign policymay change as circumstances change (Shields, 1996, p. 299). What is Public Policy? In this view, public policy is viewed as an effort to apply politicalscience to public affairs, and to examine how politics influences thedevelopment of specific government actions. Strategic planning attempts to blend the best points of theincrementalist approach with the best points of the rationalist approachand, by doing so, eliminate the major problems associated with each. Roberts, N. In the group model, the emphasis is on the various constituencies orstakeholders who have an interest in any particular policy. Fromthe rationalist approach, the strategic planning process takes a long-termview of situations and attempts to solve problems using not a singleindividual, but a group of specialists and those who have the power toimplement plans once they are developed. BusinessEconomics, pp. Because publicpolicy is subject to influences and pressures from external sources, therecan be considerable debate over the methodology used and the final report,which makes this stage and the stage of establishing evaluation criteriaimportant. 292). Economic Inquiry, pp. Shields, P. The criteria which are used may be derived from the statement ofthe problem, or may be determined by the group for whom the analysis isconducted. 297-298). Development and Analysis of Public Policy The development and analysis of public policy cannot be separatedregardless of whether the policy is approached from an output or processstandpoint. 311). Instead, this stage requiresa thorough understanding of the objectives to be achieved and creativethinking in order to develop a broad range of alternatives which might beused to achieve the desired goals. The criticism of the rationalist model begins with the idea that it isimpossible to accurately determine all of the consequences associated witha particular policy, or all of the value preferences in a society. There may be unintended consequences which arise from public policies, orunforeseen difficulties in the implementation process. 959). 949-966. 3 ). The distributive policy is one in which benefits are issued directlyto individuals without a visible cost to another group. Program managers alsoparticipate in performance auditing, which is an assessment by anindependent group of the performance of a government program or service(Shields, 1996, p. At this point, the alternatives are evaluated in terms of how well theymeet the value preferences and the most appealing alternative is selected(Henry, 1995, p. 47-53. Walters, L. Policy decisions should also include amonitoring mechanism so that later policy makers can modify or adjustpolicies as the environment changes. A2 ). But there are other areas of public policy which do not lendthemselves to empirical research as well. One of the drawbacks with this model is itsreliance on the "black box," in which inputs (demands and resources) are"transformed" into outputs (goods and services). R. At this point, or as a part of this process, additional datamay have to be gathered or the original problem may need to be redefinedowing to the information which arises during this stage. 125). In theory, the formation of public policyoccurs prior to the introduction of any other programs that may bedeveloped, but it has only been since the 197 s that serious and scholarlystudy has been directed toward the formation of public policy. Public policy can be found in bothpublic administration and in political science, but it is only in recentyears that serious attempts have been made to separate public policy fromthe programs which are implemented to support it. It can refer tothe intentions declared by political parties in an election (such as areput forth in the party platform); it can refer to a specific governmentprogram rather than just an intention; it may be general rules that guidethe specific actions of bureaucrats and politicians in a specific place andtime; or, it can be extended to include everything the government does(Bryan, 1997, p. 441). Generally,public policy is concerned with the application of formal methods andprograms that may be put in place in the public sector, and the ways inwhich policies are shaped and implemented has political overtones as wellas ramifications for public managers. Communication World, pp. Wilkie, W. The political stream is where the issues which are actually going tobe addressed are formed. 114). When determining how to evaluate programs or policies, publicadministrators are advised to keep in mind the various goals associatedwith a particular program; few programs or policies have only one goal.Thus the goals of an after-school program might be to keep childrenoccupied and out of gangs and also provide low-cost child care for workingparents. This model holds that some agencies can become"captive" to the groups which they are designed to serve, and that theagencies can become unable to differentiate between policies and programswhich are beneficial to all of the constituencies involved and only thoserepresented by the special interests. PublicAdministration Review, pp. Public policyanalysis. The systems model assumes that public policy making is essentially acycle which repeats itself and which builds on traditional systems theoryof input, output and feedback. This is different from traditional programevaluation in that the assessment is undertaken by an independentorganization which presumably does not have the same stake in the outcomeas the program manager, staff and participants. There are budgetaryconstraints in the public sector which do not always exist in privateenterprise, and the election cycle can bring additional pressure to bearwhich can shorten the strategic planning cycle when compared to its use inbusiness. Thus a government's foreignpolicy is assumed to be the sum of actions taken in accordance withstatements made by the executive previous to the actions. This approach assumes that existing policies havecertain costs associated with them which would have to be incurred again ifan entirely new policy were implemented, and that the shock of eliminatingan entire policy in favor of a radically new approach would generally bemore disruptive than merely "evolving" an existing policy to have a newemphasis or focus. The Federal Aviation Administrationthus is a regulatory agency whose policies regarding rules and regulationshave a direct cost to pilots and air carriers. This view is more concernedwith the influences, such as lobbyists and special interest groups as wellas bureaucrats and politicians, which can be brought to bear in publicpolicy formation. But there are contradictorystudies in regard to this type of research, and there are serious opponentsto welfare reform of this type who argue that the empirical research doesnot support the idea that welfare recipients remain on welfare longer onpurpose (Roberts, 1997, p. The dynamic nature of the political arena can also mean thatstrategic alliances disintegrate before a particular policy is implemented,and coalitions which might have been critical to the implementation ofpolicy may not exist when the policy is finally put into place. Regulative policies are similar to distributive policieswith the significant difference that there are likely to be costs clearlyassociated with particular groups. As part of this phase, differentsolutions may be "leaked" to the press in order to gauge their reaction inthe public forum. This view ofpolicy results in the policy-making process being elusive, but may be amore realistic approach than those views which hold that policy-making iscarried out by politicians under the traditional model of administration orthrough some other idealized process which can be modeled. C., & Sudweeks, R. In this model, the pressures broughtabout by the various groups have a strong influence on the policy which isultimately selected and implemented (Henry, 1995, p. Policy alternatives are thendeveloped in conjunction with the consequences of each, and externalfactors such as opportunity costs are assigned to the various alternatives. Inthis stream, the decision agenda is set up with intellectual and personalgoals overriding political considerations. Public Administration and Public Affairs.Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. From this approach, policy process analysis can be broken downinto six steps: defining the problem, establishing evaluation criteria,identifying alternative policies, evaluating the alternatives, selectingthe preferred policy and monitoring the outcomes (Walters & Sudweeks, 1996,p. In this way, incrementalists may underestimate theimportance of new factors on the political scene, additional economicinformation, or a change in other external factors which changes theenvironment in which the policy will be implemented (Henry, 1995, p. 12). While no public policy evaluation can be developed which isinsulated completely from criticism, careful construction of the evaluationprocess itself and the methods used to complete it can help ensure that thefinal evaluation is perceived as fair and equitable by most interestedparties. B., & McGuire, T. Seib, G. Problems can be particularly difficult to define in large areas ofpublic policy such as health and welfare. (1996, Winter). Such an analysis might result in a stop sign being placed at anintersection, a traffic signal replacing a stop sign, an entire roadwaybeing widened, or in the building of a new roadway in order to relievecurrent and future congestion in a particular area. M. Despite the difficultiesassociated with defining problems, such definition is necessary if aneffective policy is to be devised and implemented. Introduction Governments provide goods and services, and can produce goods andservices, as well. Those in power sharecommon interests and values that differentiate them from the masses andwhich generally serve to preserve the current situation (Henry, 1995, p.295). As already noted, these evaluationcriteria should be part of the policy development process, so ideally,administrators do not have to develop these criteria during the evaluationperiod but can use those criteria established at the time the program isinitially developed. In the neo-institutionalist model, the instituionalist framework issubjected to greater analytical rigor. A number of models have been developed which address these issues, butmany of these are descriptive rather than prescriptive, and since publicpolicy is so far-reaching, there is no one approach which can said to beapplicable to all of the different policy issues a public administrator islikely to encounter over the course of his or her career. The problem stream involvesfocusing attention on a particular issue or situation in order to definethe problem and garner support for finding a solution to it. Does sampling work? It is at this point that implementation of specificprograms takes place and that tasks and responsibilities are assigned.This is also the stage when monitoring techniques are set up for futureuse. Crihfield, J. One of these is the area ofwelfare and the poor, and whether maintaining welfare actually discouragesindividuals from seeking other employment. In one approach, scientific skills are broughttogether with facilitative skills. 294). Typical programevaluations include: determining whether to continue a particular program;examining how a program can be improved in terms of practices andprocedures; considering whether to add or modify program strategies andtechniques; evaluating whether similar programs can or should be adoptedelsewhere; finding how resources are allocated among competing programs;and, determining whether to accept or reject underlying program approaches(Clark, 1996, p. Establishing effective evaluation criteria at an early stage of thepolicy development process ensures that evaluation criteria other than costcan be used in the process. Program impactevaluation includes the Westinghouse-Ohio evaluation of the national HeadStart program and ongoing studies by the Labor Department of employmentprograms. In the incrementalist model, new policies are seen as building onpolicies of the past. This monitoring and evaluation of policy is fundamental to theeffective implementation of any policy regardless of how it was originallydeveloped. The nature of public policy is such that the results of any onepolicy analysis may well evolve into another policy analysis with theconsequence that the process is iterative rather than discrete. The fact that there are no clear-cut strategies fordeveloping alternatives suggests that policy makers should both be open toalternatives from external sources, but also be able to identify hiddenagendas which may be behind the alternatives suggested from such sources(Seib, 1997, p. Once alternatives have been evaluated, it is possible to select thepreferred solution given the political, economic and external environment.In some cases, the results of the evaluation may be given to the client asa list of alternatives which are ranked by order of preference; in othersituations, the preferred alternative may be the only one presented.Example of how this situation works is when the Congressional Budget Officepresents alternatives to Congress on budgetary issues (Walters & Sudweeks,1996, p. Unable to clearlyidentify the processes which result in the goods and services, the criticalstep of structure, procedures, policymakers and even the externalenvironment is generally left undescribed in this model (Henry, 1995, p.296). Bryan, J. During the 196 s, there was increased attention focused on publicpolicy development and evaluation at the federal level as the Kennedy andJohnson administrations implemented large-scale public programs. Additional criteria which might need to betaken into account include effectiveness, political acceptability, orequity. 296). In this model, the focus is on the formal relationships whichexist between and among intergovernmental agencies, such as those set downin the constitution or other governing documents. These projects differ from field experiments in that fieldexperiments use the scientific method (including control groups and randomsamples) to evaluated a proposed program. The organized anarchy model holds that there are three independentareas ("streams") which influence policy making: problems, politics andthe policy itself (Henry, 1995, p. F. There are various approaches to the empirical methods used foranalyzing public policy. 299). (1996, November). It is generallyagreed that public policy extends beyond the programs and services that areprovided by the government, but whether to extend the term to all of theactivities in which the government participates, or to limit it to a morenarrow definition (such as the philosophy which guides government action)remains in question. The relationships amongvarious departments and agencies are largely ignored in this model, and thebehavior of bureaucrats and their relationships with legislators issimilarly not considered in this model. Administration & Society, pp. 3 2). Nonetheless, the institutionalistmodel is often the starting point with politicians and bureaucrats speak ofreforming government in order to be more responsive to the needs of thecitizenry. 425-452. Although there is no one policy analysis method which works for everypolicy situation, analysts have determined that there are various ways ofapproaching policy issues which can lead to a standard set of generalguidelines. Another criticism of the incrementalist approach is that building onthe past can lead to creative but new approaches being dismissed or evenignored altogether. References Bailar, B. (1997, April). During the definitionstage, the policy analyst typically defines the problem in a way which canlead to a decision as to whether this is even a public policy issue, or anissue which can be solved through public policy. Infrastructure,economic development and public policy. 137-138. 12). 435). Lacking a single definition of public policy, it can be said thatpublic policy is what public administrators implement (Bryan, 1997, p. Problems canbe defined in terms of values, comparisons or categories. Regardless of whether the criteria are pre-existingor must be developed concurrently with evaluation, it is critical that theybe quantifiable and also take into account factors which are more difficultto quantify, such as quality of life issues where appropriate. Here, policy makers seek to separate symptoms from underlying problems anddetermine the interrelatedness which surrounds most policy issues. When evaluatingthe program, each of these goals must be taken into account in order toconsider how the program is performing against its stated objectives. The first step is to define what the problem to be solved actually is. However, even the most carefully constructed policy evaluationcan be subject to criticism from political forces which are interested onlyin furthering their own agendas and who will take exception to evaluationswhich differ in their findings from what the special interest groups wantto see. Lave, C., & Elias, P.
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