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GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY.
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Major concepts & founders, perception, phi-phenomenon, animal experiments, insight, implications for teaching.... More...
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Paper Abstract:
Major concepts & founders, perception, phi-phenomenon, animal experiments, insight, implications for teaching.
Paper Introduction:
WOLFGANG KOHLER
Introduction
Wolfgang Kohler was born in 1887 in Estonia. His inspiration for becoming a natural scientist came largely from a teacher who was a physicist and mathematician of international reputation. Kohler learned from Stumpf, to deal with facts that phenomenological observation yielded. Kohler joined Wertheimer and Koffka, also taught by Stumpf, and together they created something new, Gestalt Psychology (Ash, 1995, pp. 111-117). This research paper discuses Gestalt Psychology and its meaning, the theory, educational implications and applications of Kohler's theory.
Gestalt Psychology & It's Meaning
Gestalt psychology was a reaction against structuralism and
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A melody is heardagainst a background of silence or miscellaneous noises. This conceptled to the development of other laws of Gestalten; by 1933, 114 separatelaws were isolated (Watson, 1971, p. When students arepresented rules and principles to learn by rote memory, it is rarelyproductive. Chicks responded to a relation of lighter-darker; theyautomatically pecked at a darker color than they had been trained torespond to. Garrett, H. Kohler did not rule out imitation butpointed out that chimpanzees usually learn from imitating one anotherrather than by imitating human beings; it would be difficult for chimpanzeeto imitate something unless they themselves understood it. Isomorphism was only thebeginning, Kohler wanted to demonstrate that biology, chemistry, physics,and astronomy involved Gestalten (Watson, 1971, pp. 462-465). He theorized thatphysical systems have Gestalt properties, which offered a transition frompsychological to physical systems. Adults react to the pattern or totalorganization of the objects around them. This is a case of the law ofPragnanz (pregnance) or the principle of equilibrium; experiences tend tocomplete themselves and become as good as possible (Garrett, 1951, pp. Hestated that only some of the reactions of organisms can be understood asjuxtapositions and successions of absolute stimulus influences inisolation. The selected papers of Wolfgang Kohler. 4). 456-458). Henle, M. Kohler's studies had implications for comparative psychology. E. Gestalt psychology in German culture, 189 -1967. WOLFGANG KOHLER Introduction Wolfgang Kohler was born in 1887 in Estonia. S., & Stafford, K. Certain relationships between the whole and its partscan be understood. NewYork: J. The Mentality of Apes, published by Kohler, regardedchimpanzee intelligence. Gestalt Psychology & It's Meaning Gestalt psychology was a reaction against structuralism andbehaviorism. An example of space, is dots close togetherseen as a group (Watson, 1971, pp. Gestaltists believedthat sensory elements do not form a bundle and association does not bindelements together, because there is not a summative relationship to befound. 458-459). This is demonstrated by a student's inability to solve avariation of the problem presented. This would indicatea perceptual unification or connection within the group which should bejust as clearly represented in memory traces, as members of the group.Application of Kohler's perception theory considers concepts used in thepsychology of memory such as association. This is a means ofrelating the problem to tasks and goals and the total situation; it is ananalysis of part-whole relationships (Watson, 1971, pp. Great experiments in psychology. The form of the mental event wasviewed as the same as the form of the physical (principle of isomorphism).The formal correspondence between the brain processes and the experiencedconsciousness is not the relation of an object to a mirror image, it istopological (both are different spatially). Kohler learnedfrom Stumpf, to deal with facts that phenomenological observation yielded.Kohler joined Wertheimer and Koffka, also taught by Stumpf, and togetherthey created something new, Gestalt Psychology (Ash, 1995, pp. The principle ofclosure (Law of Pregnance) is another organizational principle. Animal experiments revealed variations of a single theme, overcomingobstacles to reach a goal object (usually food). Kohler offers the example of a person born blind who acquiressight; they do not recognize geometrical forms but they do understandquestions regarding what a form is. 64-65). Gestaltpsychology explored immediate experience (Watson, 1971, pp. Perception isregarded by non-Gestaltists as a unified response, however, Gestaltcontributions of a better understanding of perception are noted. Wertheimer called the appearance of movement with no physicalbasis, the phi-phenomenon. Although Americanpsychologists were sympathetic to Gestalt theory, they assimilated it intoan eclectic pattern. 152-156). This demonstrated that organizationsand arrangements of the visual field exist without stimulus situationstagged with verbal symbols (Garrett, 1951, pp. (1965). 63-64). Basic teachings of thegreat psychologists. (1971). Gestaltists studied visual perception with regard to how movement isperceived. For example the ape would employavailable objects as extensions of their bodies, such as a stick, to pullin a piece of food from outside their enclosure. 156-159). Alpert expanded Kohler's work withapes and studied the role of insight in the learning of young children; shediscovered immediate insight, a quick, sure solution. Gestalt experiments regard perception, learning, andthinking (Sargent & Stafford, 1965, p. Gestalt principles are relevant to teaching. Perception includes a totality or whole and Gestaltists viewthe task of psychology as accounting for this by exploring itscharacteristics as a structure and not by explaining it away. (1951). 455). R. 66-68). Dots ofthe same shape or color are easily seen as a group and distinguished fromthose of a different shape or color that form another group. Gestalt psychology was a revolt against the established order foundin psychology. Theory Gestalt psychology considered perception. 452-453). Gestalt psychology studies this organization ofunitary experiences (how they exist, change, and factors involved)(Garrett, 1951, pp. 117-118). He argued against research rules that werearbitrary. Sargent, S. NewYork: Liveright. Kohler related the mental to the physical. Gestalt psychology inspired American psychologists to undertakeinvestigations to verify or extend Gestalt principles. Different animals demonstrated different capacitiesfor perception of relations, an indicator of intelligence (Watson, 1971,pp. Kohler and Koffka were the leading Gestaltists; they statedthat experience and behavior can't be analyzed into elements ofconsciousness (structuralism) and they cannot be broken down to stimulus-response units (behavioralism)meaning. 454-455). In this case the concept of association is related to thatof organization (Henle, 1971, pp. ThusKohler emphasized the organism's immediate grasp of and functionaladaptation to a present situation rather than a reproductive synthesis ofpast and present experience(Ash, 1995, pp. I. Perceptions are whole experiencesand not the sum of their parts. B. New York: Cambridge. Gestalt psychologists view sensory elements as appearing afterintrospection. The principle ofproximity refers to parts being close together, being perceived together;When things are close together in time or space they are grouped together.This is found in an example such as tap-tap, pause, tap-tap, pause, tap-tap, in which the two taps together are heard as belonging together,instead of the last tap before the pause being perceived as related to thefirst tap after the pause. Organizational principles found in Gestalt psychology include figure-ground relations or the distinction between the figure and the ground. Principles of Organization Wertheimer formulated the principles of organization of Gestalten;they had specific reference to perception or how Gestalten were organized.He used visual phenomena (dots, lines, figures of lines) or auditorystimuli (musical notes) and presented several principles. The Gestalt movement did not question the existentiality ofconsciousness, but they doubted the reality of elements that otherpsychologists said consciousness was made of. If the external situation is incomplete, theindividual will strive to complete it. The principle of similarity can be explained by an example. Application of Gestaltprinciples questioned the assumptions of association. Watson, R. Holism and the quest for objectivity. Thetheory of insight has an effect on pedagogy and educational theory.Thorndike finally minimized the value of exercise as a factor in learning,less emphases is now placed on mechanical repetition, and current teachingstrives for the emergence of broad principles to transfer to othersituations (Garret, 1951, pp.76-8 ). Real data of experience are organized and extended wholesand specific elements are not encountered in consciousness or behavior. For thisphenomenon, an individual will perceive a figure with an inherent tendencytoward form and meaning. There is a tendency to describe Gestalt psychology ascontributing only to perceptual problems, however, Wertheimer interpretedproductive thinking. Kohler stated that whenactual perceptions have disappeared, traces of them must be in the nervoussystem; he wondered what these traces were. He reasoned that perceptualfields have the individual objects and other products of organization likesegregated groups, which may only contain two members. He viewed the main factor in productive or creativethinking as grasping the situation, the Gestalt. This may mean that two items ina perceptual field are functionally connected and if one is reactivated sois the other. Thus Kohler stated that models of evolutionary history based onsensation are worthless. the product of acomplete survey of the whole situation...a smooth, continuous curve,sharply divided by an abrupt break from the preceding behavior" (p.157).Good errors, or clear-cut attempts at a solution that are consistent withthe situation, and the pause occurring after unsuccessful attempts (animallooks back and forth from tool to objective, surveying the situation), weretwo kinds of observations that offered support for insight criterion. (Ash, 1995, pp. A sunset isviewed against a larger and less defined background. Movements fall into meaningful patterns not easily separatedinto elementary sensations and images. Thefigure exists against a general, vaguer, background. Gestaltistsdeny that perception is based only in terms of past experience. He stated that present states of animal psychology assume kindsof functions for animals. Insight criterion for testing was "the appearance of a completesolution with respect to the structure of the field,... The value of this phenomenon lies in the factthat it shows our perception of apparent movement to be unique andunanalyzable. (1971). Chimpanzee's demonstrated intelligence whileproblem solving to obtain food; insight was demonstrated through the seeingof relations while solving problems. 165-166). 465). Educational Implications, Theory Applications, & Conclusions Gestalt psychology attacked Behaviorism and reductionist tendencies;it stated that the study of behavior should be molar and not molecular.The isomorphic view was opposed to by the S-R formula. G. Experiments weredone to investigate the phi-phenomenon. Gestalt theories offered new ideas and challenged existingconcepts; they sought to revise psychology (Watson, 1971, pp. As Kohler tried to maketests more difficult, apes responded with new kinds of genuine achievementssuch as the use and making of new tools. These configurations (Gestalten)are the mental elements. Within this phenomenon, subjects perceived a whole orGestalt and not the isolated elements. References Ash, M. He felt thatapes showed the ability to act with insight (Ash, 1995, pp. Lippincott.----------------------- 1 If a teacher arranges the problemssuch that the whole is available for the student, insight is likely tooccur (Watson, 1971, p. Theseprinciples demonstrate that people respond to the nature of the setting inwhich stimuli are found rather than to the isolated stimuli. His inspiration forbecoming a natural scientist came largely from a teacher who was aphysicist and mathematician of international reputation. New York:Appleton-Century-Crofts. Stimuliare viewed as having form, pattern, and meaning with their elementsorganized. Gestaltists state that what takesplace in each part depends on the whole and this is true of all perceptualexperience. New York: Dolphin. Kohler studied learning and did experiments with chicks andchimpanzees. Gestalt theory explains perceptions withprinciples of inherent organization; experimental psychologists wouldexplain it by the variety of associations built up around it. 111-117).This research paper discuses Gestalt Psychology and its meaning, thetheory, educational implications and applications of Kohler's theory. Anorderly arrangement in sensory data is found and even a young child canrespond without previous learning. Activity was a continuous whole whereeverything fell into place with continuity, direction toward a goal, andclosure. 454-455). Gestaltists believed that behavior and experience are wholes thatare unanalyzable. Apes demonstrated seeingthe situational value of objects. Wertheimer explained his experiment on phi phenomenon to Kohler andKoffka in 1911. Insightful solutions displayed by the chimpanzees wereinterpreted as demonstrating closure of the gap in the animal'spsychological field. The brain process and the perceivedobject correspond, they are Gestalten. (1995). The great psychologists, third edition.
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