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WINTER ROAD MAINTENANCE.
Term Paper ID:21622
Essay Subject:
Accident prevention, salting, objectives, research, weather measurement, priorities, response time, action plans, costs, efficiency, technology & machinery, personnel. Tables.... More...
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Paper Abstract:
Accident prevention, salting, objectives, research, weather measurement, priorities, response time, action plans, costs, efficiency, technology & machinery, personnel. Tables.
Paper Introduction:
Winter Road Maintenance
Winter road and highway maintenance is a service which is often misunderstood. The removal of snow and ice from road surfaces is clearly essential. However, because of yearly seasonal variability, highway maintenance agencies continuously risk being either under prepared or over prepared. Correspondingly, these same agencies are also frequently accused of either neglecting their responsibility or allocating financial resources unwisely. In addition, the practice of salting is strongly associated with several negative environmental and, possibly, health effects. Compounding these public relations and liability problems is the fact that winter maintenance often involves long hours spent in the worse kinds of weather. Obviously, roadway snow and ice clearance is a tough job. It may
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Problems start, however, when chlorideions seep into the concrete and break these oxides down. In addition, a close liaison withpolice should be maintained at all times (Pearson, 199 , pp. Operations bases should typically have a control room set asidesolely for winter maintenance. With purpose-built plowing vehicles, this requires a separategritter. Unfortunately though, it costs $65 per ton. 356). Finally, several citiesand towns in Connecticut actually ran out of road salt. A significant proportion of snow and ice clearance costs depends onboth the accuracy of weather forecasts and the manner in which thoseforecasts are interpreted. This results in supersaturation of the air justabove the roadway surface. ||1 . agreed working procedures and controls. For small communities, roadscan be the sole link to the outside world (Knudson, 1987, p. However, withcareful planning and thorough preparation the responsibility can, for themost part, be carried out in an expedient, cost-efficient manner.Nonetheless, in recent years, such has not occurred in New England. The following phenomena were observed: (a) the rate for all trafficaccidents before salt spreading was about eight times higher than after;(b) the rate for injury traffic accidents before was about nine timeshigher than after; (c) the rate for property damage traffic accidentsbefore was about seven times higher than after; (d) the severity of trafficaccidents was reduced by de-icing; (e) winter maintenance reduced trafficaccident costs 88% and reduced the average cost of an accident 1 %; and,finally, (f) the services paid for themselves within 25 minutes of saltspreading (Kuemmel, 1994, p. These will allow drivers to call for assistanceand direct back-up operations. Only the state of Maine got through the winterrelatively unscathed. There are many approaches that a particular highwaywinter maintenance program can adopt. Correspondingly, these same agencies are also frequently accusedof either neglecting their responsibility or allocating financial resourcesunwisely. In the United States, Wisconsinhas the largest roadway monitoring system. Testing by the Massachusetts Department ofEnvironmental Quality Engineering has shown that many communities' drinkingwater supplies have sodium levels above the state's maximum contaminantlevel of 2 milligrams per liter (the federal level is between 2 and 25 mg/L) (Carmel, 1984, p. In recent years, winter maintenance efficiency has been enhancedthrough the use of advanced roadway sensors. In order to carryout that responsibility, organizations should "adopt a sensible level ofaction aimed at minimizing the risks to each user category and supported bya well-defined plan of priorities (Pearson, 199 , p. Winter maintenance equipment can generally be divided into threemajor subgroups: the gritters, the snowplows, and the snowblowers(Pearson, 199 , p. One important study wasperformed in 199 by the Salt Institute. In addition, the National Research Council's Strategic HighwayResearch Program has recently been coordinating various technologies forthe prediction of road maintenance needs. Annals of Glaciology, 18, 3 9.Hildebrand, C. Once a plan has been reviewed and updated, annual comprehensivetraining should begin. The off-season is perhaps the best time for making operational improvements("Planning," 1994, p. ||9. || 4. This station may contain the following:"(a) a large scale map of the area with priority routes; (b) status boards;(c) a master station for an ice prediction system; (d) two-way radio; (e)two normal telephone extensions; (f) one ex-directory telephone; (g) routeboards; (h) a counter for issuing route boards; and (i) desk space forrecording personnel (Pearson, 199 , p. A highway maintenance organization may, for instance, delineate fourlevels of action with regard to priority and timing (see Table 1). New Scientist, 117, 37.Allen, F. ||c. Regardless of which alternativeproves most the suitable, however, public safety must always be maintained. 344). This transported the salt by way of a variable feed gate, first toa chute, and then to rotating distribution discs (Pearson, 199 , p. American City & County, 1 9, 52.Numano, N. Lesser salting priorities might additionally include known troubleand accident spots, all other bus routes (including school buses), othercommuter routes, main feeder routes, and shopping centers not previouslysalted. Specific procedure--who does what when by when. In addition, salt storage hasincreasingly been associated with high sodium levels in public drinkingwater. Highways and selected primary routes should never become impassable ||to heavy vehicle traffic unless there are exceptional weather conditions||and when snow is drifting. Perhaps the most important derogatory affect of salt involves itsaction on reinforced concrete. Thirdly, polyglycol is applied by spraytankers at airports. Their map resulted in both cost and operational benefits. All-purpose vehicles, in contrast, can provide greaterefficiency. (1988, February 9). Moreover, that figure doesnot include damage to underground transmission cables, switching systems,and transformers. Falling snow | (a), (b) | 2 || |(c), (d) |4 || 4. Manning, drivers, hours, driving licenses. In western Massachusetts, for example, several lawsuits have beenfiled against the Department of Public Works (DPW). Thus, the main objectives of winter maintenance are "toprovide an effective and economic service, which will minimize hazards andassist traffic mobility at all important locations on the road network(Pearson, 199 , p. The technique employs hot springassociated groundwater for roadway snow and ice control (Hayakawa et al.,1993, p. In addition, spotting crews can now use themap to isolate key problem areas under different weather conditions. New England, therefore, greatlydepends on its winter maintenance services. ||3. Winter weather can not onlyhurt area economies, it represents a major hazard to road safety as well(Kuemel, 1994, p. To salt, or not to salt: that is snow-belt states' question. Suspense accounts tend to be the most commonfinancial technique. 48). 4).Unfortunately though, all that winter maintenance seems to be affecting thewater in certain areas. Ingeneral, training should cover the following points: (a) the organization;(b) details of the winter maintenance plan (i.e., to ensure that eachperson knows exactly what is expected and how it might be achieved); (c)individual responsibilities; (d) working hours, shift schedules, call-outprocedures, and standby personnel; (e) the importance of relevantpaperwork and records; (f) the use, limitations, and operatingcharacteristics of the vehicles and equipment; (g) communicationsprocedures; (h) instruction on the individual's options for independentaction; (i) the available back-up services; and (j) the safety of thetravelling public. Since196 , salt use has increased significantly. Salt dissolves in water and lowers itsfreezing point. According to John Benda, maintenancesuperintendent of the Illinois Toll Highway Authority, "I try to go withminimal application of salt to do the job, but if I make a mistake,somebody's going to get hurt (Carlson, 1986, 31)." In North America, about 26 million tons of salt is produced annually. Their goal is to create acohesive system offering real-time data on road and weather conditions.The three specific technologies being targeted include sensors, Nexrad, andthermal mapping. In addition, budget provisions can also be defended by consideringthe overall economic implications of the service. Forexample, urban areas require small, maneuverable equipment; the larger,more powerful machines are used in rural, hilly areas. Then, the dewpoint temperature has to be eithernear freezing or well above the road's surface temperature for asignificant period of time. Presalting route structure. In general,winter maintenance operations should always defer to practicality (Pearson,199 , pp. In the United States, one of the biggest problems faced bymunicipalities is the excessive reliance on the one-way plow. In Vancouver, routes were begun in cold, criticalsections and gradually worked their way out towards warmer, less criticallocations. The winter was one of the snowiest on record. In fact, with anaverage snowfall of 42 inches per year, Boston is among the snowiest citiesin the nation (Bulkeley, 1988, p. Variousconditions must be present before frost will accumulate on a roadway. 5 )." Thermal maps are useful for evaluating winter maintenance practices.For example, each route structure may be plotted on a background thermalmap. Thismachine is highly maneuverable. Then, connectingthis surface to the positive terminal of a direct current supply ofelectricity will establish a "rival" potential. Description of how system is intended to work. The machines' only drawback is that in bad conditions, theirrange tends to be limited by the need for ballast (Pearson, 199 , p. (1994 b., March 7). 328). J. Transformation of snow damage and its social background in recent Japan. For example, in Manchester,England, winter maintenance spending records show a variance of 1:3.5between minimum and maximum spends. Various influences will determine actual route structure. In order tomonitor salting efficiency, routes should also be independently checked.This can occasionally be accomplished by out and back routing; saltingtakes place on the out run and inspection can be performed on the return.The maximum efficiency of this procedure though, is only 5 %. De-icing was performed using either salt or salt and calcium chloride (CaCl2). |(c) |4 || 2. Moreover,ice is not always visible to drivers; icy sections of road tend to catchpeople by surprise. Nor does it reflect the cost of brine leaking into waterpipes. It is very expensive. Forexample, in Japan, a system using water pipes embedded in the center of aroad has been in place since 1963. Christian Science Monitor, 86, 1 .Ross, E. Its drawback though is its high nitrogen content; nitrogen pollution tends todisrupt the chemistry of lakes. In addition abandoned vehicles, trapped animals, and large stonescan incapacitate a machine. Furthermore, itsimpact on maintenance budgets was enormous. boundary arrangement. (1994 a., February 14). Christian Science Monitor, 75, 3."Find A Better Way To Beat The Ice." (1992, January 24). Snow blower operation requires bothskill and local knowledge. Obviously, winter maintenance action plan should take into accountthe many variables affecting each locality. However, salting also has majorundesirable side effects ("Find," 1992, p. All remaining roads including urban streets shall not remain ||impassable to heavy vehicle traffic for more than 24 hours unless ||exceptional weather conditions and when snow is drifting. For example, maintenanceorganizations can maintain two separate highway and winter maintenancebudgets, and then absorb any variance into the overall contingencyreserves. One means of assessing winter maintenance needs is through theanalysis of an area's seasonal variability. It is recommended that, under theseconditions, an immediate application of salt be applied at a rate of 1 gm/m2. 34 )." With regard tosalting, perhaps the initial priority is that pre-salting operations beperformed. In New Haven,communities which normally pay $33 per ton, were paying up to $85 per ton;moreover, in some cases, maintenance agencies had go all the way to Mainejust to find the salt. 48). Typicaltreatment objectives are given in Table 2 (Pearson, 199 , p. 52). gritting routes (maps--possibly separate volume). However, budget problems during the winter of1993/94 meant that many streets went unsalted and fewer sidewalks wereplowed. In contrast, a highway maintenance organization's priority list forsnow clearance could be as follows: (a) highways and selected primaryroutes; (b) other primary routes and principal roads; (c) roads leading toessential industrial and military establishments, hospitals, ambulance, andfire stations, bus garages, bus routes, important commuter routes; (d)roads serving shopping centers, slip roads, single accesses to villages,schools, farms; and (e) all remaining roads, including urban streets(Pearson, 199 , p. Special breed clears western passes. Such maps delineate aroad network's surface temperature distribution. In addition, the Salt Institute also assessed multi-lane dividedhighways two hours before and two hours after de-icing. ||11. 341)." This ultimately means that the service intendsto maintain a bare, wet roadway surface for the duration of adverse weatherconditions. According to Peter Ajemina,spokesman for the Massachusetts Municipal Association, by February most ofthe Bay State's cities were operating on a deficit or close to one for snowand ice accounts. A Temporal Winter Indexcomprised of various factors may be employed to estimate winter severity.However, as indicated by Pearson (199 ), this process can be difficult. London, UK: Thomas Telford Ltd."Planning for a snowy day." (1994, April). To estimate the costof services, a moving average may be employed comprised of previousexpenses over the longest period for which data are available. 46). In general, all roads should be covered once and dead running(traveling not salting) should be kept to a minimum. J. 727). In addition, the practice of salting is strongly associated withseveral negative environmental and, possibly, health effects. In areas with a large proportion ofurban roads, heavy continuous snowfall and 24 hour work schedules cancreate spending rates upwards of hundreds of thousands of dollars per day.Obviously, winter maintenance expenses can exhibit substantial fluctuation. (1992, December). A list of necessary records might include theseobservations: "(a) treatment record; (b) weather forecast and observed;(c) temperatures forecast and observed; (d) ice detection record; (e) winddirection and speed; (f) road blockages showing lengths and times; (g)plant available; (h) plant in repair showing length of time; (i) saltstock, usage, deliveries, and movement; and (j) fuel stock, usage,deliveries and movement; (k) labor return--direct employees; (l) laborreturn--indirect employees; (m) hired plant return; and (n) costs andavailable budget (Pearson, 199 , p. Winter maintenance objectives can met in various ways. Forexample, its surface temperature must be both below freezing and below thedewpoint temperature. Of this, about half is sold for de-icing. Furthermore, in the worst years, thevariance can be as high as 1:4.5. 371-373)." Part of the records keptshould also include random checks by supervisory personnel: in particular,supervisors should be make sure that no private treatment agreements exist. Naturally, the highway maintenance organization is caught in themiddle of this conflict. ||b. Wall Street Journal, 1.Carlson, E. ||7. New York Times, 137, A3 ."Acetates clear the way for ice-free roads." (1988, January 21). || 2. 357)." As the need to demonstrate efficiency has increased, so has the needto document everything. Thirdly, cost and benefits mustalso be considered. Calcium magnesium acetate(CMA) is effective down to -1 ?C, spreads more uniformly than salt, andlasts longer. 1 )." Yet another problem that New England has with winter weather involvessalt. Consequently, DPW saltoutput has been reduced from 4 pounds per mile to about 3 pounds permile (Carmel, 1984, p. Moreover, the larger four-wheel drive typetractors are capable of considerable output and virtually unstoppable. The magnitude ofthese rates is affected by several factors including weather, roadtopography, traffic flow, surface structures, road construction, andaltitude. Comparison of snow- removal technologies practiced in the cities along the Sea of Japan. Compoundingthese public relations and liability problems is the fact that wintermaintenance often involves long hours spent in the worse kinds of weather.Obviously, roadway snow and ice clearance is a tough job. According to Massachusetts law, public watersuppliers must inform their customers if the sodium content exceeds thestandard. (1984, February 2). (1991, January 29). The most critical part of any action plan is the personnel involved.Competent direction and supervision should be provided within a flexibleframework. In addition to priorities, winter maintenance plans should alsoinclude some estimate of response time. (1989, April 29). |(c), (d) |4 || |(e) |24 |*Taken from list of snow clearance priorities.Table 2. Although it may be tempting in anemergency to allow people to operate illegally, an accident under suchcircumstances could result in severe liability problems. In Rhode Island, some communities spent more than double what theyhad originally allocated for winter maintenance. 727). Computerworld, 25, 46.Knudson, T. Most weather prediction systems are composed offour primary components. A12).Moreover, winter weather can hurt a region's economy. It should also be noted that snow and ice are not the only winterproblems that highway maintenance organizations must deal with. Treatment objectives.| 1. Moreover, the implementation oftechnological innovations such as roadway sensors, thermal maps, andweather radar may make operations more efficient. ||g. Forexample, the formation of frost on bridges and roadways can also lead toconsiderable vehicular damage, injury, and loss of life. However, because of yearly seasonal variability, highwaymaintenance agencies continuously risk being either under prepared or overprepared. 361-376).Preseason training is the time to explain legislation governing applicablelicensing requirements and age limits. In K. Ingeneral, geography determines which machines will be employed where. This includes various shapes, sizes, and driveconfigurations. In Burlington, snow removal used to includeboth streets and sidewalks. It is essential, then,that operations and operations superintendents be--above all else--flexible. (199 , August). The New England states generally get a lot of snow. Lastly, thermal mapping (i.e., an infrared scanner attached to avehicle) will record roadway warm and cold spots. alone uses about 9million metric tons of road salt every year. Record snowfall takes toll on region's economy. Inrural areas, a large vehicle with a with a vee blade is most effective forcharging a way through. 2 ). These observationsincluded the following: (a) the rate for all traffic accidents before saltspreading was about 4.5 times higher than after; (b) the rate for injurytraffic accidents was about seven times higher before than after; (c) therate for property damage traffic accidents was about seven times higherbefore than after; (d) the severity of the accidents was reduced; (e)winter maintenance reduced traffic accidents by 85% and reduced the averagecost of an accident 3 %; and (f) multi-lane highway de-icing servicesgenerally pay for themselves within approximately 35 minutes of saltspreading (Kuemmel, 1994, p. Such measures arecertain to preclude some of the difficulties recently experienced in NewEngland. (199 ). Policies. || 5. Accident study validates benefits of preventive maintenance. Winter maintenance involves the question of priorities. Various other negative effects of rock salt include its tendency tokill plants and its infiltration into drinking water. location of hospitals, fire stations, etc. In the United States, however, the most economic andeffective method of keeping roads clear is the use of rock salt inconjunction with snowplowing. 342).Table 1. ||2. Personnel must be made aware of theirresponsibilities to other drivers. New Scientist, 122, 3 .Ross, E. A numerical model for prediction of road temperature and ice. Essential access roads shall not remain impassable to heavy vehicle ||traffic for more than 6 hours, unless there are exceptional weather ||conditions and when snow is drifting. De-icing roadways without corrosion. Sometimes it is appropriate to try to establish this point. Early machines consisted of a modified spreadermounted on a truck. Despite job's difficulty though, great satisfaction may beobtained from providing a direct, high profile service to the community(Pearson, 199 , p. Additionally, treatmenttime generally consists of the time it takes to complete the route (i.e., 2hours) (Pearson, 199 , p. Very often in winter maintenance, equipment and personnel are throwninto plowing and salting with little consideration as to whether or not thejob is being performed efficiently and, more importantly, at the lowestpossible cost ("Planning," 1994, p. 358). 364).More modern gritters are demountable; typically, mounting and securingtakes about 2 minutes. While bigone-way blades are good for the main thoroughfares, they are less wellsuited for tight-corner situations. Perhaps towns withsnow and ice removal problems merely need to adopt improved, more flexiblemanagement procedures. Obviously, winter roadmaintenance will continue to be an essential service. The region uses over 5 , tons of road salt annually;Massachusetts alone consumes around 2 , tons (Carmel, 1984, p. Finally, CaCl2 melts ice atlower temperatures than rock salt, but is costly and harms concrete.Clearly, highway winter maintenance is a difficult job. Response time, however, may also be subdivided into twocomponents: initial response time and treatment time. Atkinson (ed.), Highway maintenance handbook (pp. More expensive alternatives to salt include calcium magnesiumacetate, urea, polyglycol, and calcium chloride. Contact list. These influences determine the development of specific roadsurface temperature patterns. M. Regardless of such difficulties though, winter maintenance can beorganized and planned in a manner similar to routine maintenance. (1991, February 18). 341). 2 ). Under such circumstances, excessive amounts offrost may eventually accumulate (Takle, 199 , p. New York Times, 136, A12.Kuemmel, D. American City & County, 1 9, 48.Reina, P. That accounts for roughly$5 million of the $1.5 billion allocated for control snow and ice("Find," 1992, p. Late model hoppers generally have capacities ranging from 3 to9 cubic meters; hoppers above 6 cubic meters in capacity are permanentlymounted. Yet despite all of New England's experience in highwaywinter maintenance, the winter of 1993/94 proved challenging for manymunicipalities (Ross, 1994 b., p. Furthermore, high sodium content has forced the closing of severalwells. To limit the adverse effects of winter weather, people generally tryto predict its occurrence, and then employ various countermeasures (Numano,1993, p. Scientist estimate that thefull economic cost for a ton of salt (i.e., the "life cycle" cost) is ashigh as $5 . However, weathermaintenance policy can be defined in a general "framework for action" (seeTable 3) (Pearson, 199 , p. The investigation analyzedaccident frequency just before and after winter road maintenance operations(Kuemmel, 1994, p. Under normal conditions, concretealkalinity contributes to the formation of a stable oxide coating on itsencased steel reinforcing bars. Forexample, the total driving distance required to treat Vancouver's completenetwork has been reduced 3 %. Vancouver maps the city's hot spots. According to Donald Willard, Rockport's townmanager, "Mainers are used to snow (Ross, 1994 a., p. Christian Science Monitor, 84, 2 .Hayakawa, N.; Umemura, T.; Fukushima, Y. Highwayofficials argue that scaling back salting operations increases the risk ofaccidents. Wall Street Journal, B1.Bulkeley, W. (1986, April 22). Treatment time objectives.|Action |Priorities dealt with:*|Time (hours): || 1. Such a set up will stopany localized electrolysis: furthermore, a stable anode will precludeelectrolysis between the surface and the reinforcing bars (Reina, 1989, p.3 ). The atmospheric and pavement sensors will be able tomeasure surface temperature and weather, as well as the presence of snow,water, or ice. The first pass can then be widened out bysnowplows with angled blades (Pearson, 199 , pp. Bridge and roadway frost: occurrence and prediction by use of an expert system. A typical response time, therefore, mightbe 3 hours. For the most part, response timemay be defined as the time interval between the decision to salt and thevehicles' return to the garage. The U.S. Resource locations: depots, salt, plant, emergency plant. radio call signs. Snow clearance procedure. H. 4). 8). The first two consist of the installationprocedures and the sensor configurations. (1994, April). Thermal mapping techniques are already being applied in Vancouver,British Columbia. 31 ). A diverse collection of vehicles and machinery is used in wintermaintenance. The first part of the study examined two-lanehighways four hours before and four hours after maintenance operations. The removal of snow and ice from road surfaces is clearlyessential. In addition, it will melt ice which has already formed.Salt is capable of melting ice and snow at temperatures as low as -21?C.However, economically and environmentally undesirable quantities arerequired at temperatures below -1 ?C (Pearson, 199 , p. Boston is frightened by the blizzard of '78 every time it snows; but city thinks it is better to err on the safe side; the Red Sox and molasses. Wall Street Journal, 11 , A1.Carmel, J. ||d. Variations in pHwithin the concrete can then set up potential differences between differentzones on the reinforcing bars. 368). In Colorado, sensors areconnected through remote processing units to a main computer; fieldpersonnel use modems to monitor road conditions from their homes(Hildebrand, 1991, p. 349-35 ). 371). In deep snow, ditches and walls may not bevisible. Some factors which might beconsidered, for example, include climatic variations, traffic variations,the importance of different routes, availability of resources, geographiclocation, gradients, and surfacing. 343). | The materials and manpower required for winter maintenance representa significant taxpayer expense (Takle, 199 , p. Appendices. In fact,for snow more than 1 meter in depth, there is no other alternative. Gritters may also alter their spread pattern for different roadconfigurations. This should consist of combined classroom lecturesand discussion, as well as practical training with the equipment. 3). As snow piles up at a record pace, cleanup sends city budgets adrift. In older models this required physical adjustment of thespreader disc; modern machines have cab-mounted spreader controls. However, regardless of the funding methodthat a highway maintenance organization chooses, a contingency forexceptionally severe winter weather must always be provided. 52). ||e. S. 345-348). ||5. Many people have, in fact, already received notificationletters. 48). Salt solutions insoil water can prevent plants from absorbing moisture through their roots.This often leads to dehydration and death. While parts of the bars may act aselectrodes, the concrete acts as an electrolyte: ferric ions are releasedat the "anodes" and hydroxyl ions are released at the "cathodes."Eventually, the hydroxyl ions migrate through the concrete to the anode.There they combine with the ferric ions to form rust. Precautionary | (a), (b) | 2 ||salting. This could represent a potential health hazard for people on low-sodium diets (Carmel, 1984, p. Various elements which can beassessed for efficiency include the following: (a) route coverage (i.e.,ratio of priority routes to total network); (b) unit cost indicators (i.e.,total cost as related to workload); (c) routing efficiency (i.e., ratio oftotal treatment route mileage to salting mileage: a target efficiency of75% is recommended and route redesign should be considered if less than65%); (d) call-out index (i.e., relates callouts to weather and generallyhas a target range); (e) labor efficiency (i.e., relates hours booked tototal miles salted); (f) fleet size and capacity (i.e., may be based on 1 salting miles of primary route and units per route); and (g) rate of spread(i.e., grams/square meter achieved: 1 gm/m2 for precautionary salting, 2 -4 gm/m2 immediately prior or during snow, and 4 -6 gm/m2 for snowremoval) (Pearson, 199 , pp. Heavy snowfallcauses slowdowns in construction and retail sales. Fed by a pump on the host vehicle, this system allows forspeed-related distribution which results in a relatively constant rate ofspreading. Secondly, a Nexrad--ornext generation radar--network will provide high-quality doppler radarimagery. | Since the exact weather circumstances that highway maintenanceorganizations must deal with are never known in advance, it is not possiblefor these agencies to plan for actual emergencies. Gritters, or spreaders, have their origin inagricultural equipment. Vancouver maps the city's hot spots. Initial responsetime is the interval between the decision to salt and the time it takes thefirst vehicle to leave the station (i.e., 1 hour). ||f. Incertain localities winter weather may vary considerably both from year toyear, and from one region to the next. ||h. B1). Common thermal characteristics for eachweather class can be mapped using color to represent certain temperatureranges (McClean, 1994, p. 5 ). 337-339). In the U.S., the decks of roads are notnormally waterproofed; therefore, salt brine tends to seep into roadwaysurfaces ("Acetates," 1988, p. These 3 or 4 cubic meter capacity hoppers were emptiedusing a moving chain grate running over sprockets driven by an independentmotor. The limited information available on this topic(Ponting 1984, Chorlton 1986) seems to indicate that the payback is about 5years (Pearson, 199 , p. ||a. (1993). Increasedefficiency may sometimes also require the crossing of operationalboundaries or planning certain routes based on elevation. It was estimated that the cost for snow removal for all351 Bay State communities could run as high as $5 million. For example, the costof precautionary salting could be as follows: Average callout number x Route lengths treated x Unit rate =Precautionary gritting costIn addition, snow clearance expenses might be calculated according to theequation: (Length cleared x Unit rate + length salted x unit rate) x Averagecallout number = Snow clearance costA minimum winter maintenance budget provision would, therefore, consist ofthese two amounts added together (Pearson, 199 , p. ||12. For one, snow and ice tend to hamper mostactivities of individuals, industries, utilities, schools, and government.Secondly, it has clearly been demonstrated that winter weather increasesthe frequency of traffic accidents. equipment maintenance. These various diverse costs could, perhaps, add another $2 billionto the price the nation pays for its salt. References"A Salt Substitute For America's Roads." (1987, November 12). Perhapsthe most versatile snowplowing device though is the tractor plow. Alternatively, funding can be set aside in a winter maintenancesuspense account; mild winters might therefore subsidize the cost of severewinters and vice versa. Settling and/or | (a), (b) | 2 ||drifting snow. The Federal EnvironmentalProtection Agency estimates that salt-induced road damage and vehiclecorrosion costs more than $3 billion a year. Obviously, local knowledge, as well asthe needs of the community, will play a role in the decision-makingprocess. 4). Officials there have created a thermal map comprising186 miles of city streets (McClean, 1994, p. 52). Treatment decision process. 37). 373). In addition to vehicles, winter maintenance equipment should alsoinclude two-way radios. Plans should generally provide a graduated level of responsetriggered from a control center by weather information (Pearson, 199 , p.343). Winter salt use is now in a kind of equilibrium: concern overthe effects of salting are counterbalanced by pressures to keep the roadsopen. At the same time, however, environmentalists and others citethe negative effects of excessive salting. 367-368). In contrast, urea only costs $2 per ton. Then, routes can be prioritized on the basis of roadway priority andthermal characteristics. Road salt stirs debate in some snowy cities. record format. Within the United States, there are over 135 million registered motorvehicles, as well as about 4 million miles of roads and streets. ||4. However,current research is examining ways of fermenting cheese whey to produceCMA. Highwaymaintenance organizations have duty to ensure safety. Snow and ice reduce the coefficient offriction between the pavement and a vehicle's tires This can makemaneuvering difficult at best, and occasionally even impossible. Federal program plow IS efforts into snow removal. Inaddition to priority hierarchies, route lengths may be governed by responsetime, available equipment, salt stock location, area shape, regionaltopography, whether the area is urban or rural, and the required spreadrates. E. In addition, some feature a hydraulic feed beltsand spinners. In plan implementation, agencies are constantly faced with the burdenof having either under prepared or over prepared. With somany people depending on motor vehicles for transportation, government mustbe prepared to deal with adverse conditions. (1993). In addition,Vermont also had troubles. Anticipated | (a), (b) | 2 ||snowfall |(c) |4 || |(d) |6 || 3. Other access roads shall not remain impassable to heavy vehicle ||traffic for more than 12 hours unless there are exceptional weather ||conditions and when snow is drifting. Obviously, in scalingback an operation, there will be a point at which cost-savings fail to keepup with additional expenses incurred (i.e., the cost of traffic accidents,etc.). Snowblowers can be either fixed, purpose-built, or demountable; cutters canalso often be raised and lowered. Salt breaks the back of motorway bridges. Control location and method. In fact, central computers may eventually even make routingrecommendations; partial or localized callouts could result in considerablecost savings (Hildebrand, 1991, p. snow fencing. Winter Road Maintenance Winter road and highway maintenance is a service which is oftenmisunderstood. Journal of Applied Meteorology, 31, 1499-15 6.Takle, E. At about $25 per ton, salt is far cheaper than any otheralternative ("A salt," 1987, A3 ). It can also decreasestate tax revenues. Thewinter of 1993/94 proved a disaster for New England winter maintenancebudgets. 341). Upon analysis, highwaymaintenance organizations will be able to apply this information to theiroperations. Christian Science Monitor, 86, 8.Sass, B. Other primary routes and principal roads shall not remain impassable||to heavy vehicle traffic for more than 3 hours, unless there are ||exceptional weather conditions and when snow is drifting. Already, networks of roadstations equipped with various measuring devices have been established inseveral countries (Sass, 1992, p. 21). Such a document provides a means ofdefining operations to outside interests and also helps to maintainconsistency throughout an organization.Table 3: Action plan contents.| 1. In addition, several areas have recently discovered intolerablelevels of sodium in their drinking water. A more versatile fleet including, forexample, some reversibles or two-way plows might provide maintenanceoperations with greater efficiency ("Planning," 1994, p. 337-379). 339). Numerous studies have been conducted on thisparticular topic; in 1987, for example, Congress appropriated $1 millionon snow and ice research ("A salt," 1987, A3 ). The main reason for this isthe price. This can be prevented by coating concrete with astable conductive material such as polymer or a resin. 46). Such a process could reduce CMA production costs to $3 per ton(Allen, 1991, p. Snowplowing on smaller roads is generally carried out by specialistheavy plow vehicles equipped with either an angled or a vee blade. In addition, sub-soil temperature sensors could give anindication of the heat stored within the ground. American City & County, 1 9, 52.McClean, A. Studies show that roadsurfaces cool at specific rates for various locations. Moreover, following a period of several mild winters drivers often expecta consistent, delay-free transportation system. Journal of Applied Meteorology, 29, 727-734.To Whom It May Concern, Limited information was available on the specificsof New England winter road maintenance.----------------------- 9 In general, they should balance over a five-yearperiod (Pearson, 199 , p. ||8. || 3. Snowplowing operations should generally start as soon as 1 to 2inches of snow have fallen. Snowclearance requires a combination of careful planning and good maintenance.This should include thorough review of procedures and equipment. Finally, the fourth facet of predictionsystems involves the need for fundamental research on how different weatherpatterns affect the system. Some of the equipment is purpose-designed and purpose-built; whereas other items may consist of converted, used vehicles. There arevarious ways that an operation may be funded. ||6. (1994, April). 52). Since the rustrequires more space than the original steel, it ultimately expands,cracking the concrete. Annals of Glaciology, 18, 328.Pearson, D. In the old days, salt-truck drivers would simply open a truck'stailgates and let the salt pour out "until they heard it bouncing off carsand mailboxes (Carlson, 1986, 31)." Today, the situation is verydifferent. Of course these specific priorities should bevaried to suit various local and efficiency needs. Winter maintenance. 1499). Radios may also be used to provide updatedinformation on weather conditions or problems requiring immediate attention(Pearson, 199 , p. 364). Snow blowers,or snow cutters, are used when the snow is too deep for a plow. Safety in winter maintenance refers not only topersonnel, but also to the public. (1987, March 3). Then, all it takes is onebad winter, and these attitudes result in widespread public discontent(Pearson, 199 , p. It may befacilitated though by careful planning. Records to be kept. A better way to approach the jobthough, is to begin the work long before the year's first snowfall. An "average winter" needs based budget might be divided intoprecautionary salting and snow clearance expenses. By evaluating the different components of an operation, expenses cansometimes be made to seem more reasonable. Then, salting should occur in the following order: (a)designated highways and primary routes; (b) other primary routes; (c)principal roads; (d) roads leading to important industrial or militaryestablishments; (e) hospitals; (f) ambulance stations; (g) fire stations;(h) bus garages; (i) important bus routes; (j) important commuter routes(i.e., more than 3, vehicles per day); (k) slip roads; (l) approaches tointerchanges; and, finally, (m) known trouble spots (Pearson, 199 , p.341).
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