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EFFECTS OF STRESS.
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Physical, behavioral & psychological consequences. Theory, personality types, individual susceptibility, in workplace.... More...
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Paper Abstract:
Physical, behavioral & psychological consequences. Theory, personality types, individual susceptibility, in workplace.

Paper Introduction:
Introduction According to Sue, Sue and Sue (1994), millions of Americans suffer physical, behavioral and psychological consequences of stress. This paper delineates and discusses the effects of stress. Further, the paper provides a report on stress in the workplace and examines research as to why stress can have a stronger impact on some individuals than on others. Effects of Stress Graves and Lancaster (1994) have noted that there are a number of physical effects associated with stress. These effects include: elevated blood pressure (which, over time, can lead to hypertension and heart arrhythmias); increased muscle tension; elevated pulse and respiration; sweaty hands; headaches; upset stomach; high-pitched voice; dry throat and mouth; sleep

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Sue, Sue and Sue (1994) state that several theorists have attemptedto explain why some individuals develop stress-related illnesses whilethose exposed to the same stressors do not. (Pollock, 1989, p.54) Pollock cites hardiness as the pivotal personality factor in thedegree to which one adjusts to stress and thereby reduces the likelihood ofsuffering negative consequences. These effects include: elevatedblood pressure (which, over time, can lead to hypertension and heartarrhythmias); increased muscle tension; elevated pulse and respiration;sweaty hands; headaches; upset stomach; high-pitched voice; dry throat andmouth; sleep disturbance; and appetite disturbance. Chronic stress and immune function in family care-givers of Alzheimer's disease victims. Louis: Mosby-Yearbook.Gupta, U. (1989). The hardiness characteristic: A motivating factor in adaptation. St. However, there are indications that social factors can overrideracial effects at least for some stress-related illnesses. community clinics, social supportnetworks, etc.) modified the black/white difference in hypertension.Specifically, the authors found significantly higher blood pressure amongblacks with low psychosocial resources than they did among blacks with highpsychosocial resources. Understanding abnormal behavior (4th ed.) Boston: Houghton-Mifflin.Timm, P.R. & Peterson, B.D. This section ofthe paper emphasized stress and factors responsible for its differentialeffects in the workplace. Graves and Lancaster (1994) further report that stress hasdebilitative effects on behavior, and that these effects can seriouslydepress performance in the workplace. The biological perspective, on the other hand, holds that some peopledevelop stress-related conditions while others do not due to biogeneticpredisposition which causes a somatic weakness or vulnerability to theeffects of stress. These include:panic, weeping, hysteria, dissociation, guilt and anger. Further, stress canoperate to depress the immune system causing people to be more susceptibleto illness and disease (Kiecolt-Glaser & associates, 1987). (1987). RN, 43, 37-43.Dressler, W.W., Dos Santos, J.E. For example, blacks have been found to be more susceptible tothe stress-related illness of hypertension than are whites (Treiber andassociates, 1993). For example, Sue, Sue and Sue (1994) reportthat some workers continue to perform well and to maintain their moraleunder very stressful conditions while other workers experience debilitationof both morale and job performance under relatively mild conditions ofstress. & Levy, M. (1993). The behavioral perspective, according to Sue, Sue, and Sue (1994),holds that through the processes of classical and operant conditioning,some people are made more vulnerable to the effects of stress than other.For example, if people have learned to greatly fear their allergies, theauthors report that when exposed to a placebo and told that it is anallergin, they will develop an allergic reaction. Differential Impact of Stress on Workers In the work-setting, the effects of stress have been found to varygreatly from worker to worker. The mental health consequences of the 1985 earthquakes in Mexico. According toEisenberg (1989), the condition of duodenal ulcer: (1) is found morefrequently in young people than in older people; (2) tends to occur moreoften in members of higher social classes than in members of lower classes;(3) almost always occurs in males; and (4) occurs more often to people withintellectually demanding jobs. Asthma: Stress, allergies, and the genes. Many of the factors believed to contribute to differences arepersonal. (1993). In this regard,Dressler, Dos Santos and Viteri (1986) found that the availability ofsocial and psychological resources (e.g. In D. (1989). International Journal of Mental Health, 19, 21- 29.Donnelly, G.F. NY: Consumer Reports Books.Pollock, S.E. The second stage psychologicalreaction, (a reaction which is not necessarily experienced by all as somepeople adjust relatively well following the first stage reaction) isassociated with a wide variety of negative reactions. On the other hand, Eisenberg (1989) reports that the gastric ulcershows a different demographic pattern. Reactive individuals simply takes what the situation brings. Reactive typesare people who tend to blame themselves for everything that goes wrong. And business makes three: Couples working together. day dreaming or"spacing-out"), reduced creativity, increased smoking and/or alcohol usage,increased absenteeism, lethargy, and accident-proneness. Graves and Lancaster (1994) expand the list of the psychologicalconsequences of stress to include a number of general psychologicalreactions regardless of the stage model. As reactive individuals get older, their self-blame and over-conscientiousness can lead them to increasingly behave in an irrational oraggressive manner. Introduction According to Sue, Sue and Sue (1994), millions of Americans sufferphysical, behavioral and psychological consequences of stress. & Lancaster, J. Ethnicity, family history of hypertension, and patterns of hemodynamic reactivity in boys. Some will develop eating disorders. For example, if due toearly trauma, an individual exhibits hostile impulses, he will develop thestress-related disorder of arthritis while another without this conflictwill not. The Wall Street Journal, February 26, p. Hypertension and related health issues among Asian and Pacific Islanders in California. They can also develop asense of chronic fatigue, irritability, depression, feelings of inadequacy,and finally stress-related diseases such as colitis or hypertension. & Speicher, C.E. The first stage psychological reaction to stress is one ofdisorientation, confusing and bewilderment. Human behavior at work: Organizational behavior (3rd ed.) NY: McGraw-Hill.De La Fuente, R. For example, Timm and Peterson (1982) report that some peopleare more stress-prone than others because of their personality type.Specifically, the authors report that people with Type A personality,(described as impatient, competitive, aggressive individuals who havedifficulty relaxing), tend to experience more severe physical consequencesof stress than people with Type B personality (described as more mild-mannered, in less of a hurry and less competitive). Blood pressure, ethnicity, and psychosocial resources. Effects of Stress Graves and Lancaster (1994) have noted that there are a number ofphysical effects associated with stress. (1982). First, the paper examinedresearch related to establishing the physical, psychological, andbehavioral effects of stress. Unlike the person with the hardy characteristic, thereactive person is one who believes that stress is inevitable and there isnothing anyone can do about it. Other personality characteristics have also been associated withdifferential experiences of stress and its consequences. Most people experiencing the second stage psychological consequencesof stress will slowly begin to readjust and get their lives back in order.However, some will go on to experience the third stage reaction which is anintensification of the feelings associated with the second stage reactionand which, in some, will lead to the development of post-traumatic stressdisorder. Psychosomatic Medicine, 55, 7 -77.----------------------- 9 Public Health Report, 1 3, 28-37.Sue, D., Sue, D. People at work: Human relations in organizations. (1986). Another personal factor that can make for differences in how onereacts to on-the-job stress is the magnitude and frequency of changes inthe worker's personal life. According to Gupta,couples who work at the same business increase their levels of stressbecause they bring the tension of the workplace home with them. NY: Random House.Graves, P. (199 ). Lancaster (eds.), Community health nursing: Process and practice for promoting health. Forexample, if other members of the organization plan poorly necessitatingthat the reactive type work over-time, he or she will simply do it withouttaking any steps to correct the situation some other way. First, according to theauthors, there is the psychodynamic perspective which relates each disorderto unresolved early childhood conflicts or traumas. This condition: (1) is found morefrequently in older people than in younger people; (2) usually occurs inlower rather than higher social classes; (3) is associated most often withjobs involving heavy manual labor; and (4) is only slightly more common inmales than in females. For example,Pollock (1989) states that the degree to which different individualsexperience negative effects from the same stressor is associated with whatis termed the "hardiness characteristic." The hardy person is said to be an individual who recognizes that: ...he is expected to use judgement and make good decisions (control), to become actively involved with others in various activities of life (commitment), and to perceive change as ultimately beneficial to personality development (challenge). Psychosomatic Medicine, 48, 5 9- 519.Eisenberg, M.M. Regarding the psychological effects of stress, De La Fuente (199 )states that people react to stress in three stages. & Sue, S. Further, the paperprovides a report on stress in the workplace and examines research as towhy stress can have a stronger impact on some individuals than on others. Demographic factors have also been found to be associated withwhether one develops the stress-related condition of ulcers. & Leonard, A.R. Gurin (eds.), Mind/body medicine (pp. This paperdelineates and discusses the effects of stress. Paul: West Publishing.Treiber, F.A., McCaffrey, F., Musante, L., Rhodes, T., Davis, H., Strong, W.B. (1994). B2.Kiecolt-Glaser, J.K., Glaser, R., Dyer, C., Shuttleworth, E.C., Ogrocki, P. Ulcers. Summary This paper examined the stress literature. Behavioral effects are said toinclude poor judgement, the tendency to make mistakes, forgetfulness,diminished attention to detail, preoccupation (e.g. & Viteri, F.E. One external or non-personal factor that can cause workers to reactdifferentially to the same stressor has been discussed by Gupta (199 ).Gupta states that some workers are more prone to suffer negatively from jobstress if their spouse works at the same business. And Asian Americans have lower rates of hypertensionthan the general population (Stavig, Igra & Leonard, 1988). However, Donnelly (198 ) feels that thepersonality type most likely to suffer negatively from stress is thereactive type. This perspective has been supported by some researchsuch as Mrazek's (1993) finding that parents with asthma are more likelythan other parents to produce children who have the condition. Studies of the development of stress-related illnesses suggest thatdemographic factors may mediate the degree to which stressors lead to theseconditions. If there is a great deal of change going on ina worker's personal life, he or she will be more vulnerable to the effectsof on-the-job stress than will someone whose personal life does not containa great deal of change (Davis, 199 ). These general reactions include:emotional outbursts, irritability, depression, hostile and assaultivebehavior, a tendency to blame others, anxiousness, suspicion, and feelingsof worthlessness. (1988). Psychosomatic Medicine, 49, 523-535.Mrazek, D.A. Goleman & J. Stress management and crisis intervention. Advances in Nursing Science, 11, 53-54.Stavig, G.R., Igra, A. De La Fuente's threestage model was developed from observation of the psychologicalconsequences occurring among a large sample of survivors of the 1985earthquake in Mexico City. (1994). Also, in this section of the paper, theoreticalperspectives for why some people are more vulnerable to the physicaleffects of stress than are others were briefly explicated. Stanhope and J. 193-2 5). Second, research related to why some peopleare more vulnerable to stress than others was examined. Why you just can't take it anymore? St. ReferencesDavis, K. (198 ). Or, they may attempt to escape by using drugs oralcohol. Researchers have attempted to discover factors that contribute tovariance in the impact of stress on workers. (199 ). (199 ). In M.

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