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NUCLEAR ENERGY IN JAPAN.
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Problems & risks, economics, opposition, role of govt.... More...
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Paper Abstract:
Problems & risks, economics, opposition, role of govt.

Paper Introduction:
Nuclear Energy in Japan More than any other country, Japan has staked its industrial future on nuclear power. Its 40 commercial reactors currently supply about 26% of Japan's electricity. In addition, by the year 2010, the Japanese government plans to double that number to about 80 in order to supply 43% of the country's electricity needs. Since Japan has virtually no domestic supplies of coal or oil, nuclear power is its way of achieving energy independence. In 1991 alone, the government allocated nearly 60% of its Science and Technology Agency's budget, or 317.3 billion yen, to nuclear research and development. Its longterm policy involves the commercial use of plutonium in fastbreeder reactors and lightwater reactors, as well as vigorous research on fusion.

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"Crises Fuel Japan's Nuclear Industry." New Scientist 128 (1 November 199 ): 27."Dangerous Cargo." The Economist 323 (18 April 1992): 32-33.Hadfield, Peter. "Japanese Science Agency Targets Space, Genome." Nature 353 (5 September 1991): 3. "Is Nuclear Power Losing Steam in Japan." Business Week (18 March 1991): 47."Nuclear Chief Scores Program." Facts on File 52 (21 May 1992): 378.Suzuki, Tatsujiro. . .," 77.Cross, "Japan Sets Sail . "Japan's Nuclear Program Stresses Breeders, Plutonium, and Safeguards." Physics Today 41 (January 1988): 71-74.Swinbanks, David. . Conventional light-water reactors typically run onuranium, producing plutonium as a byproduct of fission and storing it aswaste.[xi] Japan's plans include converting 12 of these reactors to run onmixtures of uranium and plutonium, as well as building fast-breederreactors that will create more plutonium than they use--the effect beingsimilar to "burning your fuel and having it, too."[xii] Unfortunately though, these plans have been the focus of considerabledebate. ," 16.Miller, "Japan's Nuclear Gamble . "Accidents Cast Shadow Over Japan's Nuclear Strategy . . . One of the main points of criticism involves the reprocessing ofspent fuel from Japanese light-water reactors in France and GreatBritain.[xiii] Until it develops its own reprocessing capability, Japanwill have ferried 45 tons of plutonium halfway across the world by the endof the decade.[xiv] Although the mission will be performed by a 7, -ton,double-hulled nuclear fuel transport accompanied by an armed Coast Guard-like vessel, some say that the shipments are vulnerable to both theft byterrorists and accidental mishap.[xv] Either scenario could be catastrophic. . Since then, however, new discoveries in Canada and Australia,as well as worldwide anti-nuclear sentiments have moderated the demand foruranium. When Tokyo shaped itsplans during the 197 s, dwindling world uranium supplies justified suchexpenditure. "Japan Debates Plutonium." Nature 352 (4 July 1991): 7.-----------------------Tatsujiro Suzuki, "Japan's Nuclear Dilemma," Technology Review94 (October 1991): 42.David Swinbanks, "Japan Promotes Nuclear Power," Nature 353 (31October 1991): 782.Ibid.Suzuki, 42.David Swinbanks, "Japanese Science Agency Targets Space,Genome," Nature 353 (5 September 1991): 3.William Sweet, "Japan's Nuclear Program Stresses Breeders,Plutonium, and Safeguards," Physics Today 41 (January 1988):72.Michael Cross, "Japan Sets Sail Into Potential NuclearDisaster," New Scientist 321 (5 October 1991): 36.Peter Hadfield, "Accidents Cast Shadow Over Japan's NuclearStrategy . Althoughthere were no injuries reported and no radioactivity released, the accidentwas widely viewed as a violation of public trust. .," 16.Miller, "Japan's Nuclear Gamble . With the proposed expansion of Japan'sreprocessing facilities, it has been estimated that the agency could losetrack of enough plutonium over the years to build a couple of dozen nuclearweapons.[xxxi] While no one is ready to accuse the Japanese of harboring asecret nuclear weapons plan, their policy does set a dangerousprecedent;[xxxii] especially for countries like North Korea, who are knownto have such ambitions.[xxxiii] With its surplus of plutonium and itsadvanced missile capability, Japan could quickly and easily develop weaponsin response to future nuclear tensions. As a result, the fuel's prices have plummeted.[xxiii]Furthermore, as Paul Leventhal, president of Washington-based NCI (anorganization which monitors the proliferation of nuclear weapons), hassaid, "Using plutonium to fuel ordinary light-water reactors is inefficientand dangerous."[xxiv] In fact, some believe that Japan's introduction of plutonium fuelinto its light-water reactors is just a stop-gap measure to avoid anenormous plutonium surplus.[xxv] Severe delays in the development of itsfast-breeder reactors have left the country with the problem of putting thematerial to practical use. As a result, the U.S.Atomic Energy Commission estimates that Japan's inventory of plutonium willballoon to 84 tons by the year 2 1 .[xxvi] Furthermore, Jinzaburo Takagi,head of the Tokyo-based Citizens' Nuclear Information Center, charges thatadditional delays in Japan's nuclear projects may leave the country withanother 6 extra tons.[xxvii] Japanese authorities insist that they have no intention ofstockpiling plutonium.[xxviii] Still though, their policy causesconsiderable international concern. . "Japan Sets Sail Into Potential Nuclear Disaster." New Scientist 321 (5 October 1991): 36. . Tokyo had been planning to use plutonium in itsnew breeders by 2 1 . . "Japan's Nuclear Gamble Ignites a White-Hot Debate." Business Week (22 June 1992): 76-77.Miller, Karen. A slight eight kilograms ofplutonium packed into a bomb could lay waste a city the size ofNagasaki.[xvi] In addition, the substance is known to remain lethallytoxic to humans for 24 , years.[xvii] Merely allowing the shipments totake place could result in a worsening of Japan's already poor reputationfor environmental insensitivity.[xviii] Furthermore, the 1988 revision ofthe Bilateral Agreement on Peaceful Use of Nuclear Energy with the U.S.automatically grants Japan advance consent for reprocessing and overseastransport of nuclear materials.[xix] So far, Greenpeace and the NuclearControl Institute (NCI) have each launched global campaigns to stop theshipments.[xx] In addition, economic factors as well as political circumstancesthreaten Japan's plans for plutonium. . . .," 76.Cross, "Japan Sets Sail . The two mainreasons for this are that the fuel employed in fast-breeders, plutonium,can be used to make nuclear weapons and, also, that world economics hassince made fast-breeder reactors unviable.[x] Despite these facts though, Japan remains adamant in its enthusiasmtowards plutonium. "Japan is just slower to see thelight that the breeder is uneconomic and has poor performance," said ThomasCochran, of the U.S. . For starters, Japaneseengineers claim to have made several design improvements that increasereactor safety.[xli] These include such things as building the reactors inpits to lower their center of gravity during earthquakes and numerous otherquality control measures.[xlii] In addition, MITI plans to spend $27million on a nuclear awareness campaign aimed at abating any loomingopposition.[xliii] Thus, it seems that for the most part, the Japanesegovernment remains steadfastly committed to its plans for plutoniumregardless of what price may eventually have to be paid. The country's anti-nuclear movement--which had subsided in the years following the 1986Chernobyl accident--has more recently been rekindled by a series ofaccidents closer to home.[xxxv] The first involved the dysfunction of acooling pump at large power plant complex just north of Tokyo. "Japan's Nuclear Dilemma." Technology Review 94 (October 1991): 41-49.Sweet, William. Not only did plantoperators fail toimmediately shut down operations, but the utility delayedreporting the accident to MITI and local authorities.[xxxvi] Then, in1991, 5 tons of radioactive primary cooling water flooded into thesecondary cooling system at the Mihama plant in Osaka.[xxxvii] Theseaccidents and others which have occurred subsequently have increased thepublic's concern.[xxxviii] A 199 government poll revealed that 9 % ofJapanese already felt "uneasy" about nuclear power.[xxxix] The result ofthis grass-roots opposition is that it has become increasingly difficult tofind sites for new reactors.[xl] The governments response has been multi-fold. "Anatomy of an Accident." Nature 354 (28 November 1991): 26. . In fact, somedoubt that even this schedule will ever be met. .," 16.Suzuki, 47.Suzuki, 47.David Swinbanks, "Anatomy of an Accident," Nature 354 (28November 1991): 26.Suzuki, 47.Suzuki, 48.Swinbanks, "Japan Promotes Nuclear Power," 782.Michael Cross, "Crises Fuel Japan's Nuclear Industry," NewScientist 128 (1 November 199 ): 27.Ibid.Karen Miller, "Is Nuclear Power Losing Steam in Japan," BusinessWeek (18 March 1991): 47.----------------------- 1 "Japan Promotes Nuclear Power." Nature 353 (31 October 1991): 782. . .," 16.Suzuki, 48.Cross, "Japan Sets Sail . Natural Resources Defense Council.[xxi] For onething, the cost of fast breeder reactors may be three times that of aconventional nuclear plant.[xxii] Japan's prototype Monju plant, due tofire up this spring, has cost $4.6 billion alone. Nuclear Energy in Japan More than any other country, Japan has staked its industrial futureon nuclear power.[i] Its 4 commercial reactors currently supply about 26%of Japan's electricity.[ii] In addition, by the year 2 1 , the Japanesegovernment plans to double that number to about 8 in order to supply 43%of the country's electricity needs.[iii] Since Japan has virtually nodomestic supplies of coal or oil, nuclear power is its way of achievingenergy independence.[iv] In 1991 alone, the government allocated nearly 6 % of its Science andTechnology Agency's budget, or 317.3 billion yen, to nuclear research anddevelopment.[v] Its long-term policy involves the commercial use ofplutonium in fast-breeder reactors and light-water reactors, as well asvigorous research on fusion.[vi] Although Japan's plans are highlyambitious, they are also fraught with difficulty. The majority of Japan's nuclear energy problems arise from the factthat it insists on trying to achieve energy independence through theestablishment of an indigenous nuclear power supply using fast-breederreactors and recycled plutonium fuel.[ix] Although many countries includedfast-breeders as part of their nuclear energy development during the early197 s, most nations have since scaled back such plans. . . .," 76.Ibid.David Swinbanks, "Japan Debates Plutonium," Nature 352 (4 July1991): 7.David Swinbanks, "Japan Debates Plutonium," 7.Ibid.Miller, "Japan's Nuclear Gamble . ." New Scientist 129 (9 March 1991): 15.Miller, Karen. .," New Scientist 129 (9 March 1991): 15.Suzuki, 42.Ibid.Karen Miller, "Japan's Nuclear Gamble Ignites a White-HotDebate," Business Week (22 June 1992): 76.Ibid.Sweet, 72.Cross, "Japan Sets Sail . Endnotes BibliographyCross, Michael. . Technical difficulties, however, and the plentifulsupply of cheap uranium for conventional reactors have pushed back breederreactor starting dates to sometime between 2 2 and 2 3 . . .," 76."Dangerous Cargo," The Economist 323 (18 April 1992): 32."Nuclear Chief Scores Program," Facts on File 52 (21 May 1992):378.Suzuki, 46.Ibid., 45.Miller, "Japan's Nuclear Gamble . Thus, the Japanese policy has theoverall effect of encouraging regional nuclear proliferation.[xxxiv] In addition, Japanese authorities face domestic as well asinternational opposition to their nuclear program. .," 16.Suzuki, 48."Dangerous Cargo," 33.Ibid.Cross, "Japan Sets Sail . Changing circumstanceshave made the country's commitment to a "plutonium economy" politically andeconomically less favorable.[vii] Furthermore, a series of nuclearaccidents has spawned domestic anti-nuclear sentiments.[viii] Thesefactors seemingly have had little affect, however, towards motivating theJapanese government to reassess its position. For one, the materials-accountingtechnologies that underlie the nuclear safeguards system may not beaccurate enough to cope with such a large-scale operation.[xxix] TheInternational Atomic Energy Agency in Vienna tries to monitor all theplutonium and enriched uranium produced by countries that have signed the1969 Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty.[xxx] As things stand today, justkeeping track of the plutonium in Japan's tiny reprocessing plant atTokaimura is a daunting task.

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