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ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILES IN 1990S & BEYOND.
  Term Paper ID:20221
Essay Subject:
Technology, economics, types, energy issues, legislation, obstacles, benefits.... More...
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Paper Abstract:
Technology, economics, types, energy issues, legislation, obstacles, benefits.

Paper Introduction:
Electric Automobiles At the turn of the century, most U.S. automobiles were electric (McCarty, 1988, p. 160). With improved roads spanning greater distances, however, the range and performance capabilities of the internal combustion engine made the electric vehicles obsolete (McCarty, 1988, p. 160). Now, as the century comes to a close, conditions spawned by the internal combustion engine's widespread usesuch as air pollution and the nation's dependence on foreign oilare forcing an assessment of alternative technologies (McCarty, 1988, p. 160). In fact, recent legislation passed in California amounts to a directive for the production of electric cars (Stix, 1992, p. 126). As of 1990, the state requires that 2 percent of all new cars sold in 1998 be emissionfree (Achille's Axle, 1992, p.

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41). 13 ). 6.Keebler, J. (1992, October 12, a.). 129). 126-127.Wakefield, E. 131). automakers and a fewselect suppliers a technical and legal lock on critical battery technology(Stix, 1992, p. (1988, October 3). 1 ). GM sets record with 1992 loss of $23.5 billion. They range from small portable units to multi-car,drive-in kiosks for rapid charging at electric-vehicle service centers(McCosh, 1992, Nov., p. government intends to do more than just createa legislative mandate for electric vehicle production. Automotive News, n5456, p. Thus, improvements in battery technology remain essential to thefuture of electric vehicles. 16 ). GM's proposal for electric car is reconsidered: Board expected to debate alternatives with eye on cost- cutting needs. 12, a., p.34). 127). Automotive News, n54 8, p. Although these batteries have the potential for producing highpower, their eventual cost and lifetime potential are not yet known (Stix,1992, p. 129). This battery, however, is a long term prospect (beyond the year2 5) for the USABC (Simanaitis, 1992, p. The cables induce current inthe electric vehicle, thus giving it power and recharging its batteries forlater use on unpowered roads (Cars Draw Power From Roadway, 199 , p. 6). Hybrid cars use aninternal combustion engine as well as electric power (Plug-In Car? In addition, Sweden's Clean Air Transport will beginproduction of its LA3 1 in 1994 (Wattever Next, 1992, p. 65-68.Michels, A. Los Angeles Times, pp. 76). Electric Automobiles At the turn of the century, most U.S. How clean is the plug-in car? These batteries power devices suchas personal computers. D1, D5.Nauss, D. Electric vehicles. 126), California is the nation'slargest auto market (White, 1992, Dec. (1992, August). Although thebrush DC motor is the stalwart of the past, the use of AC induction andpermanent magnet DC motors is becoming increasingly common (Simanaitis,1992, pp. 16 -162.McCosh, D. 81). Electric car pool: Automakers consort on advanced batteries. 126-127). (1992, October 5). (1992, March 2 ). Electric van promotes energy independence, cleaner air, and better power load management. In a series hybrid, the engine acts as a generator to recharge thecar's batteries; in effect, it functions as a range extender (Bedard, 1992,p. The other type of hybrid, the parallel hybrid, has two completelyseparate powertrains (Bedard, 1992, p. Most car batteries todayare of the lead-acid type. 41). Compared with conventional automobiles, battery-powered vehiclestend to be slow, expensive, and inconvenient (Achille's Axle, 1992, p.1 1). D1, D3.Rifkin, G. Furthermore, the U.S. 11, p. AlthoughCARB's rules only apply to automakers selling 35, or more cars in thestate annually (Simanaitis, 1992, p. Ifall 5 states were to follow California's lead, the result could be anannual market for 85 , electric cars in America by the year 2 1(Volting, 1991). There are plans to offset the electricvehicle's inherent disadvantages (i.e., lesser range, lower speed, andhigher cost) with incentives such as lower road tolls, special parkingrights, and a tax credit that has already been proposed for the FederalEnergy Act (Diem, 1992, Oct. Its onlyemissions are water and vapor (McCosh, 1992, Aug.). Automotive News, n5468, pp. Big 3 to unveil new electric cars at Disneyland in '94. 2.McCarty, L. Furthermore, this proportionincreases to 5 percent in 2 1 and 1 percent in the year 2 3 (Michels,1992). Researcher says automakers can't meet deadline for electrics. Thus far, though, the industry has yet to be drivenby economics. Charging ahead: Electric vehicle experts take pragmatic approach at Confab. 133). Another jolt for electric cars. The only obstacle to GM's plans for its electric car seems to be thecompany's financial difficulties. 1 1).Furthermore, the company plans to build a manufacturing plant within thenext two years with $14 million of EPRI money (Achille's Axle, 1992, p.1 1). The plansinclude a quick build-up to about 3 , vehicles a year (Wattever Next,1992, p. More complex battery rechargers include regenerative braking systemsand inductive coupling. Such interest in electric vehicles is not restricted to the UnitedStates, either. Automotive newsfront: Tooling up for impact. (1992, May). For another, oil--themost politically potent commodity on the planet--only exists in finitequantities and is extremely vulnerable to fluctuations in price (Huber,199 ). 1 ). 34.Diem, W. The problem is that such an electronic management device musthandle high power loads without overheating and yet be reasonably light andcompact (Murray, 199 , p. Still, though, the cost of the sodium-sulphur isreasonable, and, with insulation, the battery can be kept molten using amere 15 -watt power source (Simanaitis, 1992, p. B. 16 ). Impact finds believers in engineers: GM's electric vehicle technology incorporates innovations in batteries, electronics, and materials. (199 , February 19). Design News, v46, pp. Ford posts $7.4 billion loss for '92. Scientific American, v2 6, n5, pp. In fact, 4 years ago, buses in Switzerlandwere powered by giant steel flywheels that had to be recharged at everystop (Rifkin, 1992). R. There are three basic types: DC with brush, AC induction,and DC with permanent magnet (Simanaitis, 1992, p. 133).Typically, it responds to changes in accelerator position: it isequivalent to a fuel-injection system on a gasoline engine (Bedard, 1992,p. Automotive News, n54 8, p. 1 1). Even such restricted use, though, will provideautomakers with a huge market (Wattever Next, 1992, p. GM makes an impact: Environmental regulations and technological advances propel the electric car. Cost is biggest question, most elusive answer: Current electric cars wear pricey stickers. Ford upgrades its electric vehicle project. In addition, New York, Massachusetts, and 1 other states areconsidering passing similar legislation (Achille's Axle, 1992, p. GM plans to scale back its electriccar project--producing only a small number of Impact-style vehicles (White,1992, Dec. With improved roads spanning greater distances,however, the range and performance capabilities of the internal combustionengine made the electric vehicles obsolete (McCarty, 1988, p. 1 1). 133). It is a field, however, which isprogressing rapidly: with monthly technological advances, more power isbeing transmitted through less silicon (Simanaitis, 1992, p. Magnets placed within the wheelinduce an electric current which could subsequently supply power to anelectric car (Rifkin, 1992). 1 1). The diesel engine in VW'shybrid Golf automatically starts up whenever fast acceleration or speeds inexcess of 4 mph are required (Plug-In Car? These parts include a motor, a drivetrain, a charger, acontroller, and a battery (Bedard, 1992, p. GM did approach Ford andChrysler, but each has already committed itself to the development ofelectric vans (White, 1992, Dec. 199 , p. Among thecompany's alternatives is finding a joint venture partner with which toshare production costs (White, 1992, Dec. Another advanced battery, the sodium-sulphur type, produces a greatdeal of power (Achille's Axle, 1992, p. Typically,this would be done overnight and at home, thus taking advantage of excessoff-peak energy capacity available at powerplants (Welter, 1991, p. Sanyo Electric Company hasdeveloped an electric car partially powered by a fuel cell that employsreverse hydrolysis of a phosphoric acid (McCosh, 1992, Aug.). 1 2).Although a few have been used on satellites, in 1982--after an expenditureof $9 million--the program was cancelled (Achille's Axle, 1992, p. Detroit's big three are moving quickly toward joint effort on electric vehicles. An increase, for example, to $3 or $4 per gallon of gasoline wouldmake current electric cars cost-competitive (Bedard, 1992, p. (1992, June 1). For most families, the electric car will probably be asecond vehicle used for such things as commuting to the railway station(Wakefield, 1977, p. 127). 15) and, asproduction volumes increase, the cars will only become more affordable(Diem, 1992, Oct. 199 , p.76). In electric vehicles, lead-acid is good foracceleration and fair for range; its drawback is that the batteries requireshallow discharges (Simaniatis, 1992, p. What's the deal on electric cars? H. More advanced types includethose made from nickel metal hydride. (1977). Essentially, it is a matter ofpriorities: whether or not GM is willing to sacrifice its long-termfinancial health in order to achieve short-term cost-cutting goals.Perhaps it should be noted that, when Ford recently posted its own 1992loss of $7.4 billion, one analyst said that the company "was beginning topay for a relative lack of spending on new product development in the 198 s(Nauss, 1993, Feb. 3, 34.Diem, W. 12, D1). If any company does meet them, however, it willbe General Motors. By signaling the motor to act as a generator, theregenerative brakes feed energy back into the batteries (Murray, 199 , p.128). 2.----------------------- 12 GM courts Fiat for electric parts buy. Electric motors convertenergy to power that rotates a shaft (Bedard, 1992, p. Now,as the century comes to a close, conditions spawned by the internalcombustion engine's widespread use--such as air pollution and the nation'sdependence on foreign oil--are forcing an assessment of alternativetechnologies (McCarty, 1988, p. Automotive News, n5467, p. This technology, however, has problems of its own.In 1975, an American coalition of government, industry, and academiaembarked on a program of flywheel research (Achille's Axle, 1992, p. Another clean fuel,hydrogen, has been used by BMW. 133). Already, the high performance of GM's electric Impact can beattributed, in part, to advances in power electronics (Murray, 199 , 127).GM engineers used 144 metal-oxide-silicon field-effect transistors(MOSFETs) to create a motordrive-electronics package with anextraordinarily high power-to-weight ratio (Murray, 199 , p. Furthermore, the Japanese have called for the production ofabout 1 , electric cars annually by the year 2 (Johnson, 1992).Obviously, the recent re-emergence of the electric vehicle is being drivenprimarily by individual governments as a response to environmental concerns(Murray, 199 , p.128). Car and Driver, v37, n11, pp. 5) and Ford has initiated a pilot run of its Ecostar(Jackson, 1992), only GM has made a full commitment to electric cars(Breese, 1992). The least mature of all the technologies, the lithiumpolymer battery works at ambient temperatures (Simanaitis, 1992, p. The electric car's achille's axle, v324, n7777, pp.1 1-1 2.Economist. J. Volting along the freeway, v321, n7733, p. Steps will be takento ensure that people buy them. Forbes, v145, n4, p. 12, a., p. (1992, May). Lithiumaluminum/iron disulfide also requires high temperatures (Simanaitis, 1992,p. 199 , p. 133). 4 -41.White, J. 128). R. (1992, November). 133). Popular Science, v241, p 29.McCosh, D. 7.Johnson, R. 13). (1993, February 12). 133). Regenerative braking consists of a control systemwhich recognizes when a driver lifts his or her foot from the accelerator(Murray, 199 , p. B. Its drawback, however, isthat it freezes solid at temperatures below 3 C (6 F) (Achille's Axle,1992, p. (1992, July 2 ). 127).Promising technologies still on the horizon include insulated gate bipolartransistors (IGBTs) and gate-turn-off silicon-controlled rectifiers (GTO-SCRs) (Simanaitis, 1992, p. Automotive News, n547 , p. 1 1). Industry Week, V24 , n2, pp. Good, affordable controllers should beavailable within the decade (Bedard, 1992, p. Basically, any two dissimilar materials placed in a suitable mediumcan form a battery (Simanaitis, 1992, p. Alternatives to batteries do exist. Such circumstance is bound tohave implications for any venture as innovative as the Impact. Government contracts to companies that agree torelinquish their patent rights will fund research into sodium-sulfur,nickel metal hydride, lithium polymer, and lithium metal sulfide batterytechnologies (Stix, 1992, p. Popular Science, v241, pp. Generally,they have desirable noise and vibration characteristics, good torque (evenfrom zero rpm), few moving parts, and excellent durability (Simanaitis,1992, p. Fortune, v125, n11, p. 1 1). In January 1991, the Department of Energy--incollaboration with General Motors, Ford, Chrysler, and the Electric PowerResearch Institute (EPRI)--formed the U.S. (1992, December 1 ). 126-129.Nauss, D. Although electric propulsion requires a complete reinvention of theautomobile, it can basically be divided into five component parts (Bedard,1992, p. (1992, May). J. Drivetrains in electric vehicles consist of reduction gears whichmatch motor speed to wheel speed (Bedard, 1992, 133). Wattever next, v325, n7781, p. 41).General Motor's Hughes Aircraft Company has produced a line of prototypechargers which it is actively marketing to world vehicle makers (Diem,1992, Oct. The difficulty is that the amount ofbattery energy which can currently be stored remains tiny compared to theamount of potential energy contained in a gallon of gasoline (Plug-In Car?199 , p. R. H. Japanese seek electric car standards: Talks to focus on connectors, batteries. For reverse, the motor is merely run backwards (Bedard, 1992,133). 13 -131). 129). Back in 1988, the company was involved in the development of theelectric G-Van (McCarty, 1988, p16 ). 7). (1992, August 31). In the UnitedStates, however, compliance with California's zero emissions rules can beaccomplished only by pure electrics. Contracts near for battery R&D. 126-136.Stix, G. Los Angeles Times, pp. Automotive News, n5439, p. Wall Street Journal, p. A4, col. (1992, October 17). The consumer's electric car. 126). W. Barring the development of some new technology, emission-free issynonymous with electric (Bedard, 1992, p. 133). 128). 8 .Huber, P. S13-15.Economist. It recently posted a loss for 1992 of$23.5 billion (Nauss, 1993, Feb. Inductive coupling--a system being developed in California--requiresunderground cables carrying high-amperage current beneath a road's surface(Cars Draw Power From Roadway, 199 , p. 128). 12, b.). A4, col. The problem is that it is much harder to get electricity into andout of a battery than it is to pump and burn gasoline (Achille's Axle,1992, p. 127). Automotive News, n5462, p. 1 1). (199 , October 1). 133). Although Chrysler is developing an electric minivan(Diem, 1992, Oct. The second, and perhaps the most enduring, problem for pure electricvehicles, lies with the batteries. 1 2). 133). For one thing, scientific progress is advancing at a rapid pace--already, world governments and industry have spent some $75 million onbattery research (Diem, 1992, Oct. Electric vehicles on the horizon? Furthermore, it has been said that, if the Impact's lead-acidbatteries can be made to last 5 , miles, its operating costs will becompetitive with those of a conventional automobile (Murray, 199 , p. This is the result of a number of factors--the primary onebeing the underdeveloped state of battery technology (Achille's Axle, 1992,p. Despite such efforts by government and industry, some have alreadyclaimed that American automakers are not going to meet the Californiadeadlines (Breese, 1992). GM's Project Freedom is designed to produce such a vehicle, andToyota is also doing work using tiny gas-turbine engines (Plug-In Car?199 , p. Transmissions arenot normally necessary. (1992, November 11). When their utility as a means of local transportation becomes morewidely recognized, though, they will most likely become attractive to theprivate sector. 81). Already, Electrosource of Texas claims that its new battery design, whichuses screens of lead wire instead of plates as electrodes, will be able toprovide necessary increase in longevity (Achille's Axle, 1992, p. At first, electric cars will probably only replace vehicles infleets, namely those of city and state governments (Wattever Next, 1992, p.15). Of the two systems that are still inadequate for realistic productionof electric cars, controller technology is one (Bedard, 1992, p. D5, col. Thesimplest take power from a wall socket (Bedard, 1992, 133). 12, b.). 126-127). Recognizing this, the federal government haslaunched a $262 million, four-year effort to give U.S. 129). 1.Simanaitis, D. Meanwhile, Japanese automakers are aggressively pursuing their ownelectric programs (White, 1992, Dec. (1993, February 11). 141). 129).It can also be shaped for packaging and optimal recharge (Simanaitis, 1992,p. In general,Europeans tend to favor the hybrids (Bedard, 1992, p. As of199 , the state requires that 2 percent of all new cars sold in 1998 beemission-free (Achille's Axle, 1992, p. 34.Economist. 127). All electric vehicles eventually require a charger of some kind. 13.Murray, C. It is the consortium's objective to setup pilot plants capable of making thousands of batteries with double ortriple the energy capacity of current ones (Stix, 1992, p. 16 ). With advances made by USABC research, however, theymay become a long-lasting power source capable of storing large amounts ofenergy (Stix, 1992, p. Flywheels act asreservoirs of kinetic energy: once a flywheel's heavy rim starts spinning,it tends to keep spinning (Rifkin, 1992). 2 .Design News, (199 , October 1). (1992, September 19). Road & Track, v43, pp. 7,). is already leading the world incommercial electric car production with its Panda Elettras (Diem, 1992,Oct. automobiles were electric(McCarty, 1988, p. 76-81.Economist. 166.Jackson, K. (199 , October 13). Since an electric motor has maximum torque at rpm, there is no need for a low gear to move the vehicle from rest (Bedard,1992, 133). New York Times, p. (1991, January 21). Thus far, though, these technologies offerlittle advantage over batteries (Plug-In Car? Manufacturers who are unable to meet the standard will pay finesthat could hurt their ability to sell other cars and trucks (White, 1992,Dec. (1992, October 12, b.). 128). 67). 13). (1992, November 16). Such circumstances, however, may not necessarily pertain to thefuture. R. Who will buy the electric car? D1)." ReferencesBedard, P. In fact, GM has long been the leader in the field of electricvehicles. (1992, October 26). 12, c.). S. 1 ,) and will eventually requiremore than 2 , new electric cars every year (Achille's Axle, 1992, p.1 1). 133). 41-43.Diem, W. Another alternative technology is the flywheel. Electric cars draw power from roadway, v46, pp. v317, n7676, pp. The California Air Resources Board (CARB) freely admits that itsintention is to force a new technology (Bedard, 1992, p. 81). 133). Wall Street Journal, p. 129). 1 ). In fact, recent legislation passed in California amounts to adirective for the production of electric cars (Stix, 1992, p. Automotive newsfront: Fuel cell on wheels. Electric vehicles can be divided into two general categories--thehybrids and the pure electrics (Bedard, 1992, p. 126). W. (1992, October 12, c.). R. 4.Diem, W. 133). Thecontroller regulates battery current to the motor (Bedard, 1992, p. (1992, December 7). Advanced Battery Consortium(USABC) (Keebler, 1992). 34). Ann Arbor, MI: Ann Arbor Science Publishers.Welter, T. 131). Using spin to power electric cars: The concept of a potter's wheel is applied to autos. Design News, v44, pp. Italy's Fiat Auto S.p.A. 1.White, J. 133-141.Breese, K. More recently, GM engineers havecreated an electric car with some impressive performance characteristics.The Impact--which had been slated for commercial production at a factory inLansing, Michigan by the mid-nineties--reportedly has a -6 mph time of 8seconds, a top speed in excess of 1 mph, and a range at 55 mph of 12 miles (Murray, 1992, p.

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