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History, qualities, significance & depictions in art of goddess in Greece and Near East.... More...
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Paper Abstract:
History, qualities, significance & depictions in art of goddess in Greece and Near East.
Paper Introduction:
According to the ancient Greeks, Aphrodite was a beautiful, youthful goddess, associated with the attributes of love and life (Schefold 15). Between the 6th century B.C. and the 1st century A.D., she was frequently used as a subject matter in Greek and Hellenistic art. During that period, goddesses related to Aphrodite were often seen in Near Eastern art as well. In fact, Aphrodite's origins can be found in the goddess Astarte, who was worshipped by the Phoenicians. The Assyrians, who controlled the Near East up to the end of the seventh century B.C., worshipped a goddess named Ishtar who was similar in many ways to Aphrodite. The Babylonians adapted Ishtar to their pantheon and, like the Assyrians, considered her to be not only the goddess of love and life, but also of warfare (Ghirshman 393). The Persians, who took control of the region in 539 B.C., had a goddess named
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Works CitedGardner, Louise. New York: McGraw-Hill, 196 , 631-673.Parrot, Andre. Because of these commonattributes, similar gestures can be found in the representations of thegoddess in both Greece and the Near East. Abrams, 1989.Honour, Hugh, and John Fleming. Thus, the goddess was "called upon to drive the meninto battle-frenzy in order to satisfy their honour and the need to protecttheir 'property'" (Getty 23). During that period,goddesses related to Aphrodite were often seen in Near Eastern art as well. Honour andFleming point out that this Aphrodite's pose, with "left knee slightlyadvanced and left foot withdrawn," is a reversal of the pose generallyfound in nude male statues of the time (112). This was meant tosymbolize the goddess' ability to nourish the soul after death, "and toreaffirm that death as well as life is under the protection of the Goddess"(Getty 7 ). Just as there are similarities in themebetween the Greek and Near Eastern versions of Aphrodite, there are alsocertain similarities to be found in comparing her poses and gestures in theart of those two regions. The Babylonians adaptedIshtar to their pantheon and, like the Assyrians, considered her to be notonly the goddess of love and life, but also of warfare (Ghirshman 393).The Persians, who took control of the region in 539 B.C., had a goddessnamed Anahita. It is interesting to note that Lilith, in contrast to Aphrodite, wasthe Assyrian goddess of death rather than life. Nineveh and Babylon. In his statues of the goddess, it is apparent thathe was striving for a high degree of realism. In sharp contrast to the norm of the period, thisfigure of the goddess depicts the nude human body "with loving care"(Parrot 161). The Aphroditeof Cnidus is often hailed as being "the perfect embodiment of femalebeauty, supremely and deceptively lifelike" (Honour and Fleming 112). In fact, in early NearEastern representations of Ishtar, the heads were usually "reduced toenormous staring eyes" (Getty 9 -91). Although the arms aremissing from the Aphrodite of Cnidus, it is presumed that the figure'sgesture, like her pose, was more naturalistic than those of earlier models. 7th ed. Thus, the offering of thebreasts serves as a symbol for the goddess' protection of life. By depicting Aphrodite as a beautiful nude woman, Praxiteles brought forthall of the best attributes of this goddess of love and life. Interestingly, although the Greeks becamefamous for showing Aphrodite in the nude, they did not start out by posingher in this way. Despite these similarities, the poses of Aphrodite inGreek and Near Eastern art often conflicted with one another. W. Praxiteles, a sculptor who livedduring the early fourth century, was an important figure in thisrevolutionary new style. Particularly foundamong nude depictions of the goddess, this gesture shows "one hand coveringthe breasts and the other concealing the lower body" (Ghirshman 4 3). Furthermore, Anahita, like Ishtar, not only "ensured thecontinuity of life" but "was at the same time a goddess of war" (Ghirshman25 ). "Classical Greek Art." A History of Art. This can especially beseen in the way the goddess has one foot forward and slightly raised.According to Langlotz, "even the beautiful body and movement of the Venusde Milo depend upon the Urania, although they follow the formal laws of alater period" (646). Infact, she was shown with wings and taloned feet. This "Mesopotamian tradition"in art persisted throughout the Hellenistic period and could be seen, forexample, even in relatively late Persian works (Janson 135). London: Thames and Hudson, 1964.Hartt, Frederick. Prior to about the 4th century B.C., the Greek depictions ofAphrodite were generally restrained in the typical Near Eastern manner. Various Greek statues of the goddess show thisgesture (Getty 7 ). She was known not only in Greece,but in the Near East as well, where she went by such names as Ishtar,Astarte or Anahita. Despite being the earliestknown female nude, this depiction of Lilith was far from realistic. Thus, the so-called "Pudic Venus" was"a figure whose erotic attraction was ... In the few nude female statuettes of the NearEast, the "gesture of the Venus Pudica" was also often used (Ghirshman 47). This paradox of a goddess ruling warfare as well as love and lifewas found among the Greeks as well. SirLawrence Gowing, ed. "Classic Art." Encyclopedia of World Art. In the words of Langlotz, the poseof the Aphrodite of Cnidus "reveals a richly variegated movementconditioned by a greater flexibility of the figures' axis in contrast tothe concentrated, resilient effect of the Urania" (646). The Aphrodite Urania (from the 5th century B.C.) isrepresentative of the way the goddess was depicted in Greece prior to the4th century. By the 4th centuryB.C., Aphrodite had been transformed from an aloof, unapproachable goddessto one who was more human than divine. Myth and Legend in Early Greek Art. According to Getty,the beautiful young woman was seen as being a symbol for all that the menwere fighting for. Praxiteles used a carving technique whichmade the stone appear soft and smooth, like real flesh. Although they originally followed Near Eastern models, the statues ofthe goddess and other deities in Greece were soon "assimilated into a newand unmistakably Greek idiom" (Honour and Fleming 97). A Greek vase from about the same time shows Aphrodite in two-dimensional profile (Schefold 31). The Greeks sought to "humanize"Aphrodite, as well as the other deities, in their art. 4th ed. London: Thames and Hudson, 1961.Prag, A. In the NearEast, the goddess was often shown in a static, unrealistic pose. London: Thames andHudson, 199 .Ghirshman, Roman. New York: Harry N. Nevertheless, the basic pose of the Aphrodite Urania wasimitated in various ways by later Greek sculptors. Furthermore, her pose isrigid and her only gesture is to hold her arms up in front of her. By depicting Aphrodite as a young nude woman, theGreeks developed the attributes of the goddess so that she became a symbolof artistic beauty as well as love and nourishment. and the 1st century A.D., she was frequentlyused as a subject matter in Greek and Hellenistic art. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1983, 131-148.Schefold, Karl. Vol. In fact, without the attributes of love andfertility there would be no life at all. In fact, a stone relief of Lilith from about 2 B.C. The Assyrians, who controlled the Near Eastup to the end of the seventh century B.C., worshipped a goddess namedIshtar who was similar in many ways to Aphrodite. Aphrodite was an important goddess because she represented animportant area of human life. Apparently, the Phoenicians went against the Near Easterntradition in this respect. Robert W. New York: HarryN. Abrams, 1991.Langlotz, Ernst. New York: Harry N. Thus, as noted by Honour and Fleming, the Phoeniciangoddess Astarte, "usually nude in her homeland, was clothed by the Greekswhen they transformed her into Aphrodite" (98). Praxiteles' version of Aphrodite had a strong influence on laterGreek versions of the goddess. Thus, statues of Aphrodite were oftenworshipped by Greek warriors before going into battle. Goddess: Mother of Living Nature. Although the Near Eastern depictions are less detailed andless refined than the Greek examples, this nurturing gesture appears to bea common artistic theme in both places. Horst de laCroix and Richard G. J. Another common gesture in both Greek and Near Eastern art isthat which is known as the "pudica" or "modesty" pose. Again, the pose is somewhat stiff andunrealistic. The Visual Arts: A History.Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1982.Janson, H. In the Near East, there was even afuneral sarcophagus depicting Astarte with this gesture. Praxiteles depicted Aphrodite in more flexibleposes than ever before. A latermodel, known as the Capitoline Aphrodite, shows this gesture moreexplicitly. Another example can be seen in the Aphrodite of Melos,also known as the Venus de Milo ("Venus" being the Roman name forAphrodite). Anotherrare Near Eastern female nude can be seen in a stone statue fromapproximately 1 B.C. 3. As in theAphrodite of Cnidus, this naturalism is enhanced by the realistic pose ofthe figure. One commontheme in both Greek and Near Eastern portrayals of the goddess is thegesture of "offering the breasts." In this gesture, the goddess cups herbreasts with her hands, as if offering them "to the world in a timelesssacred gesture, a reminder to all that it is through the breast that lifeis nurtured" (Getty 38). According to Janson, the ancientNear Eastern artists avoided showing any other details because they wantedto emphasize the eyes, which they considered to be "the windows of thesoul" (122). is "the first voluptuous female nude known from antiquity" (Hartt11 ). Anexample of this can be seen in a stone statue from about 65 B.C., in whichthe goddess is shown in simple, conical shapes (Honour and Fleming 98).Her pose is extremely stiff and rigid, and her arms are held down straightby her side. In fact, Aphrodite's origins can be found in the goddess Astarte, who wasworshipped by the Phoenicians. Crandall, ed. Inaddition, the gesture of modesty serves as a symbol for the delicacy offeminine beauty. Abrams, n.d.----------------------- 9 For example, the Aphrodite of Cyrene, fromabout 1 B.C., is a nude female whose pose is very similar to that of theCnidus example. He was keenly aware of humananatomy and, for the first time in art history, there was an effort toconvey a sense of "the flesh and bones beneath the skin" (Prag 139). N. Themost famous sculpture of the goddess by Praxiteles is known as theAphrodite of Cnidus. The goddess statues of that region oftenavoided realism by using simple geometric shapes. InGreece, on the other hand, a radical innovation occurred in which thegoddess was humanized. Although she was known by different names, the basicthemes surrounding her were generally the same. Tansey, rev. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich,198 .Getty, Adele. Art: A History of Painting, Sculpture, Architecture. During the classic period, Greek artists revolutionized Western artby frequently posing Aphrodite in the nude. Stuart Gilbert and James Emmons,trans. Honour and Fleming note that this gesture emphasizes thenatural beauty of the love goddess. Persia: From the Origins to Alexander the Great.Stuart Gilbert and James Emmons, trans. This goddess, like Ishtar, held dominion over love andfertility. W. enhanced by her modest gesture"(Honour and Fleming 112). Basically, the Near Eastern depictions of the goddess were lessnaturalistic than those of the Greeks. As a general rule, nudedepictions of the goddess are rare in Near Eastern art, although there aresome notable exceptions. History of Art. According to the ancient Greeks, Aphrodite was a beautiful, youthfulgoddess, associated with the attributes of love and life (Schefold 15).Between the 6th century B.C. Thepresumed positioning of the arms in the Aphrodite of Cnidus, for example,comes close to showing this gesture (Honour and Fleming 112). Gardner's Art Through the Ages. He also posed thegoddess in a more naturalistic manner. In contrast to the later humanism of the nude female form,this depiction gives the goddess "a quality of super-human dignity"(Langlotz 646). Along with using simple shapes, the Near Eastern artistsoften depicted their deities in stiff poses. In this way, aneffort was made to show a relationship between human beings and the gods.By contrast, Near Eastern representations sought to maintain a distancebetween worshipper and deity. In contrast to Near Eastern examples, the Venus de Miloimitates the style of Praxiteles in which "the feeling for stone as stonehas quite surrendered to the ambition of making stone look as though itwere the soft, warm substance of the human body" (Gardner 148). Although there are few Near Eastern parallels to Praxiteles in termsof nude or naturalistic poses, the depictions of the goddess in that regionnonetheless show certain similarities in terms of gesture. In addition, small cylindrical statues of goddesseshave been found in Persia which show them "holding up their bare breasts"(Ghirshman 47). Although male nudes had already become commonplace atthe time, this sculpture was the first nude female statue to be found inclassic Greek art (Gardner 141).
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