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Role in intercultural communications, methodologies, theories, limitations, suggested future research.... More...
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Paper Abstract:
Role in intercultural communications, methodologies, theories, limitations, suggested future research.
Paper Introduction:
In recent years, the role of ethnography under the rubric of sociological, anthropological, and communication research has grown tremendously. As early as 1962, scholarly research began to take the tract that research on culture could and should change from the focus of observing pragmatic behavior to an analysis of the broader, culturally relevant, trends present in society (Hymes, 1962). This research has been the basis of much of the work on the subject of ethnography in the past three decades, and will form the basis of this paper. In line with that, this paper will examine the role of ethnography in the broader subject of intercultural communication, and will analyze some of the methodologies used in ethnography, and their relevance to the field as a whole. Finally, the paper will conclude with some of the problems faced by the theoretical
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Descriptively, theory allows a more heuristicapproach so that any bias may be minimized and the nature of the researchbase tracked more effectively. I submit that while context is important in determining identity and therefore behavior, there is probably a 'blending' that occurs on many occasions . Of course, cultural differences also account for different meaningsand interpretations of ethnographic data. Finally, impressions focus on the research and tend to try toeliminate the observer and focus on the observations. Hammersley, M., & Atkinson, P. Engendering Knowledge: The politics ofethnography, part 2. This is not to say, however, that there is any consistent view withinthe scholarly community regarding the nature of ethnography. Anthropology Today, 4(5), 15-21. "What we need iscommunication": "Communication" as a cultural category in some Americanspeech. Culture and communication: A reviewessay. (1988). 52). (1988). ICC theory allows the research to draw a lineardistinction between intracultural (single culture) or intercultural(interactions between cultures). Leeds-Hurwitz, W. Hymes, D. (1987). (Singer, 1987, p. Gladwin & W.C. (199 ). (1988). Intercultural communication: A perceptualapproach. Kim, Y.Y., et.al., (Eds.). In fact, one of the inherentweaknesses of the ICC theory is that it does not always take into accountthese differences. (1987). Within the theoretical structure, scholars have identified threeprincipal modes of ethnographic representations. Journal ofContemporary Ethnography, 16(1), 41-48. Newbury Park: Sage. In each of these,the theoretical role compounds the problem, and effort must be made tomerge the three into a coherent package (Von Maanen, 1988). At the outset of any given inquiry the ethnographer does not know how to produce actions which are interpreted as he intends them to be taken . Beyond ethnography: Anthropology ascommunication. . Within this structure, ethnographic approaches to theresearch questions need additional sophistication, often added bycommunication theory, so that the translation of differing paradigms may beaccomplished.in a smooth transition (Collier, 1988). The role of ethnography inICC is as a tool--one that combines the needed materials from disparatesources into a synthesis of communication study and the resultantperspectives. Collier, M.J. As one scholar noted: The whole question of context determining identity and therefore behavior--cannot be overstated. Reflections on Ethnography. Caplan, P. Finally, within the nature and structure of ethnographic research,the term communication itself implies a theoretical structure. Theethnography of speaking. . . Katriel, T., & Philipsen, G. In this, theory provides a workingmodel to establish more inter-relationships between functions that would beavailable without the theoretical structure (Irwin, 1987). Communications Monographs, 48, 3 1-317. . Realism is the most prevalent,and reflects the theoretical tradition of pragmatic reporting.Confessionals focus on interpretation from the view of the third person,and sometimes represent a reversal of the more traditional ethnographicrole. The future role of ethnography may then rest on the combination oftheories and constructs already present in other disciplines. (1988). Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, 16(1), 4-24. Von Maanen, J. Rainbow, P. 17). For example, different societies may classifyindividuals differently. Thus, the theoretical basis for ethnographic research revolves aroundthe practicality of the research methodology, combined with the nature ofthe material and the addition of other variables that may impact on thestudy of culture and communication. In recent years, the role of ethnography under the rubric ofsociological, anthropological, and communication research has growntremendously. A comparison of conversations among andbetween domestic culture groups: How intra- and intercultural competenciesvary. Communication Quarterly, 36(2), 122-144. (1988). Althoughfurther research is necessary to establish a set of benchmarks for actualICC usage, it is important to note that although communication itself doesnot require a theoretical construct in order to work, the scholarlyexplanation of communication within the ethnography mode is clearlyenhanced by the use of general theory as well as the more specificintercultural communication theory (Katriel & Philipsen, 1981). . It mayfurther refine those roles, particularly in the context of allowing asystematization of external versus internal analysis within the largerframework of sociological or anthropological research itself (Adler &Adler, 1987). References Adler P.A., & Adler, P. New York: Tavistrock. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall. This will impact thenature of the research, the research design, and the manner that the datais collected and analyzed. . Other theoretical issues are in evidence in the context of ICC. Linearity of research design in ethnographicstudies of speaking. Engendering knowledge: The politics ofethnography, part 1. . Moreover, differences in view about the nature of social research are merely reconstructions of its logic; they are hypotheses subject to evaluation against the evidence currently available and against further evidence that will become available in the future. Ethnography: Principles inPractice. The theoretical implications of thisattribute allows ethnographic research to play an important role incommunication theory and, . Singer, M.R. Using this as a model, the role of theorybecomes even more important in its use as a structural method for scholarlyfocus (Leeds-Hurwitz, 199 ). Caplan, P. (1983). . There are also certain qualitative aspects of ethnography thatrequire theoretical assumptions in order to establish basal relationshipsbetween communicators. Sturtevant (Eds.).Anthropology and Human Behavior. Under what conditions will an international businessman behave like a businessman first and only secondarily as a national of his country . . The past and future of ethnography. This is an important part ofcommunication research, and allows the research a way to distinguishbetween effective communication and-the lack of true interculturalrelationships. Chicago: U of Chicago P.----------------------- 8 (1962). Communication theory, communication competence theory in particular,offers the researcher a methodological interpretation so that personalattributes, communication skills, psychological adjustments, and culturalawareness are specifically geared toward the assimilation and depletion ofethnographic information. (1981). 45).This shows that it is really the theory of ICC that establishes therelationships to be studied, and not the reverse. Finally,the paper will conclude with some of the problems faced by the theoreticallimitations of ethnography, and suggest some further trends appropriate forscholarly analysis. if paradigms play an important role in science, their character is almost certainly less all-encompassing than Kuhn and some of those who have taken up his ideas often suggest. the theoretical, methodological, and substantive goals of the ethnography of speaking determine how an investigator resolves the problem of linearity in his empirical work. Hymes, D. Theories in interculturalcommunication. Thus, for the scholar, it is important to note the relationshipbetween theory and practice. Anthropology Today, 4,(6), 14-17. As hypotheses, they must not be treated as matters of ultimate commitment even if, for the purposes of practical scientific work, they are taken as true until further notice (Hammersley & Atkinson, 1983, p. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 9, 85-116. For example, . As early as 1962, scholarly research began to take the tractthat research on culture could and should change from the focus ofobserving pragmatic behavior to an analysis of the broader, culturallyrelevant, trends present in society (Hymes, 1962). Irwin, J. (Philipsen, 1977, p. In line with that,this paper will examine the role of ethnography in the broader subject ofintercultural communication, and will analyze some of the methodologiesused in ethnography, and their relevance to the field as a whole. Cultural Anthropology, 3(4), 355-364. Tales of the field: On writing Ethnography. (1977). (1988). Theory also provides a way to take cultural and ethnic values fromthe subconscious level to the conscious. Discourse and theoretical function also allow for the necessaryusefulness of theory within the operative interpretations of thecommunicator. Although theory, in and of itself, cannotreplace empirical observation and scientific methods, it can help toprovide a working structure so that the results reported from the collecteddata have a standardized and meaningful relationship to other materialscollected by other scholars at different times. Washington, DC: Anthropology Society ofWashington. In theory, each of these attributes must act inconjunction with the other attributes in order to specifically delineatethe desired outcome. Forinstance, theoretical reflectivity has important implications that takeimplausible attempts at social research out of context and transform theminto variable knowledge ratios. Context is yet another modifier, and uses theory as away to effectively identify human behavior. In addition, since humans are so vastly divergent in theirattitudes and reactions to external stimuli, ICC may function as thesolidifying block between the various scientific disciplines that measurecultural attitudes. In T. Philipsen, G. This research has beenthe basis of much of the work on the subject of ethnography in the pastthree decades, and will form the basis of this paper. Trends in the use of theory within ethnography are also apparent.Using ethnographic methodologies, the idea of gender within communicationmay be somewhat implicit within sociological and anthropological research.The theoretical basis of ICC may then be extrapolated to include a way ofdealing with gender differences within ethnographic communication, and anadditional method for analysis (Caplan, 1988, Parts 1 and 2). Intercultural communication theory thus allows for bothdiscourse and other ethnographic considerations to be merged into thedesired range of data collection and end-product (Collier & Thomas in Kim,et al., 1988). It is then the task of the ethnographer, usingthe appropriate theoretical tools, to place the differing classificationswithin the contextual make-up of the particular society in question(Rainbow, 1988). (1987). Communication Quarterly, 25(3), 42-5 . These three modes are:realism, confessionals, and impressions. .
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