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SUICIDE AMONG ADOLESCENTS.
Term Paper ID:17778
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Incidence, causes, male vs. female suicide, compared to adult suicide, depression, role of media, death as escape from problems, social factors, family, prevention.... More...
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Paper Abstract:
Incidence, causes, male vs. female suicide, compared to adult suicide, depression, role of media, death as escape from problems, social factors, family, prevention.
Paper Introduction:
During the last decade there appears to have been a dramatic increase in attempted and completed suicides among the adolescent population (Emery, 1983). Among 15 to 19 year olds the suicide rate in 1950 was between 2.7 and 3.5 suicides per 100,000. By 1977 this figure had risen to 14.2, the highest increase in the suicide rate of any group except 20 to 24 year olds. Further, the tendency not to attribute suicidal motives to young adolescents and the desire to spare families public embarrassment result in a number of suicides being officially recorded as accidents (Husain & Vandiver, 1984). As a consequence, some analyses estimate that the actual rates of adolescent suicide may be three times as high as the official government statistics, which show that, in 1983 alone, 6,000 young people killed themselves (Tugend, 1984). Some also contend that for every
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Given the stigma attached to the word suicidesome schools are presenting the information under the guise of studentstress programs. Appearing excessively bored, restless, and hyperactive 14. This is relevant given that the objective of the measurementtechniques employed in both assessing depression must make reference tofactors which can be identified as high risks for suicide. Adolescent depression and suicide. However, the study alsofound that women were more likely to develop depression and men were morelikely to develop alcoholism. He also reportson the risk factors which tend to predispose children to depressivesymptoms. Reported suicidesamong Native American youths have increased by almost 1, percent duringthe past two decades, becoming the second leading cause of death in the 1 to 2 year old age group. Someimagined that their suicides would radically transform the world or wouldcause their lovers who rejected them to feel forever guilty. This is not only true of depression but of otherpsychopathologies and of alcoholism. For example, a disproportionate number of suicidal youths havebeen found to believe in reincarnation and to believe that they will remaincognitively aware of events on earth after they die. (198 ). The argument has also been offered that rock stars can create aglamour about death that appeals to the young (Attig, 1986). The influences of childhooddisciplinary experience on the development of alcoholism and depression.Journal of Child Psychology 28(3), 399-415. (1984). The study by Deykin et al. New York: SP Medical and Scientific Books. The resultsof the study found that adolescents who reported a history of alcohol anddrug abuse were four times as likely to have a history of depressivedisorders than controls. AsIndian communities have become more acculturated, the factors contributingto the feeling known as anomie have grown. (Tugend, 1984) Several studies confirm the hypothesis that suicidal youths tend toengage in wishful, magical thinking about death (Husain & Vandiver, 1984)These unrealistic thoughts about death reflect the limitations ofchildren's cognitive development, which include egocentric thinking, theimaginary audience, and the personal fable, as cogently described by Piagetand Elkind. Angold reports on the different meanings of the term depressionand the differing symptoms which constitute the condition. Parentalconcordance for affective disorders: Psychopathology in offspring.Journal of Affective Disorders 15, 278-29 . This would tend toimply that parental influences have a strong and lasting effect on thedevelopment of disorders, somewhat supporting the contention that earlyexperiences have effects on symptomatology in a normal population. Further, chronicdepression during adolescence tends to be characterized by excessive selfcriticism, feelings of powerlessness, inexplicable crying spells, andfeelings of hopelessness about the future (Chartier & Ranieri, 1984). As a consequence, some analyses estimate that the actualrates of adolescent suicide may be three times as high as the officialgovernment statistics, which show that, in 1983 alone, 6, young peoplekilled themselves (Tugend, 1984). There have been cases where an English teacher would grade an essay by astudent- on suicide and return it corrected for grammar (Tugend, 1984). Husain, S., & Vandiver, T. Adolescents whosesuicide attempts failed have explained that they imagined how good it wouldfeel to observe the effects of their act on those here on earth. Introduction to the special series. Most suicides in adolescents cometotally out of the blue; either many adolescents give no warning beforetheir suicide or their symptoms are too imperceptible to cause adults muchalarm. (1984, March). (1983). (1982). Several authors have outlined the situation and behaviors that oftenindicate depression leading to adolescent suicide (McKenry & Christman,198 ; Husain & Vandiver, 1984): 1. Becausemales choose the most violent methods for killing themselves, like shootingand hanging, their suicide attempts are far more successful than females'attempts. In 1984 California and Floridaenacted state laws requiring suicide prevention programs in high schools.The programs are aimed at teaching students to recognize suicidaltendencies in themselves and in their friends and to seek help whensuicidal thoughts occur. Brochures are also being provided for parents andteachers. In addition, feelings of loss can emanate fromthe loss of self-esteem. Not all adolescents manifest their depression in the same way. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books. (1987). Since children who come from a family where suicide has beencommitted are six times as likely to kill themselves than are other youngpeople, researchers are simultaneously examining genetic data andinvestigating the interpersonal interactions within these families. The study assumed that disciplinary actions meant misbehaviorin the children who later developed depression. These authors found thatdepressive disorders present in parents are also at risk of being found intheir children. (1983). Adolescence and Death. (Coleman, 1987) The suicide behavior of adolescents and adults is similar in severalaspects (Husain & Vandiver, 1984; Weiner, 198 , 1982). Another study ( Holmes & Robins, 1987,1988) found that depressivedisorders in adulthood could be predicted from parental disciplinarypractices. Pressured on the homefront to succeed, young peoplemay feel overwhelmed by the economic instability, high mobility,competitiveness, and rapid change operative in our technological society.Feeling powerless and lonely in the midst of these pressures, someyoungsters may feel so overwhelmed that they opt for suicide. Some also contend that for every suicidethere are ten unsuccessful attempts, most of which remain unreported. Changes in eating or sleeping habits 2. In contrast to males, female typically employ methods that areless lethal and more time consuming, such as trying to poison themselveswith pills. Forexample, in a 1982 survey of 116 adolescent girls from different racial andsocioeconomic backgrounds, attending San Francisco's public high schools,23 percent were moderately to severely depressed as measured by the BeckDepression Inventory; and 39 percent reported occasional thoughts ofsuicide (Gibbs, 1983). (1987) directly relates to the issue athand. Recognizing this, specialattention might be directed toward adolescent girls who manifest symptomsof depression.Family Factors Among the variables associated with adolescent suicide a number arerelated to the adolescents family (Husain & Vandiver, 1984) It appears thatdrug abuse, marital discord, and physical abuse are more common in thefamilies of suicidal than nonsuicidal youths. Somepsychologists contend that depression among young is often overlooked,because the symptoms are dismissed as a normal part of adolescence. Chartier, G., & Ranieri, D. Olderadolescents often express depression through delinquency, drug abuse,sexual promiscuity, and rebellious behavior at home and at school. Weiner, I. Merikangas, K., Pursoff , B., & Weissman, M. The Florida law further requires that to be eligible for teachercertification, college graduates must receive suicide prevention trainingin order to recognize the signs of depression and stress in their students. The melodramatic or emotionless portrayals ofdeath in the media often sustain the image that suicide is an instructiveact that can teach one's enemies and careless loved ones a lesson. Suicide Clusters. The onesignificant issue in the development of depression is the family history ofdepressive disorders. (1987). Such suicidesare thought to occur partly in response to adolescents' feelings ofculturally induced anomie. (1984). Behaving more aggressively or more belligerently 4. AdolescentBehavior Disorders. Older adolescents and adults usually killthemselves by hanging or shooting, while younger adolescents and childrenusually take a drug overdose. Verbalizing feelings of helplessness 15. Irrespective ofage, three times as many males commit suicide as females, but femalesattempt suicide three times more often than males. First, although crises like losing a job, having a violent fight witha parent, to getting pregnant may appear to account for a suicide, a singleincident is seldom the primary motivator. Education Today, 11-12. Deykin, E., Levey, J., & Weels, V. Manywill be persistently tired, behave like hypochondriacs, or have problemsconcentrating at school. Yet,despite the likelihood of underestimating the actual number of suicides,suicide is still the third leading cause of death among adolescents. There is more suicideamong whites than blacks, more in urban than rural communities, more inhigher socioeconomic groups than among poor, and more among Protestantsthan among Catholics or Jews. A sudden interest in religion and afterlife 7. Record albumsand stage shows sometimes depict mock hangings and suicidal gestures in aneffort to entice the audience. Angold (1988) also reviews studies which indicate that certainprecipitating factors can lead children to develop depressive symptoms,these include divorce and the loss of a love one. Folk, J. Suicide among American Indianadolescents. Psychopathology in adolescence. Breakdowns in communication with parents or other important people 11. (1988).Epidemiology of depressive symptoms in young adolescents. In their efforts to escape depressing thoughts,depressed youngsters sometimes become engaged in the quest for continualstimulation and entertainment. San Francisco: Western PsychologicalAssociation. Giving away valued possessions or making comments about getting my life in order 5. Still others withdraw intosolitary activities, where they need not fear human rejection. In Karoly & Steffen, Eds. Attig, T. (1988). (1984, October 31). Through these federally funded programs studies are beingconducted on the possible genetic, biological, and family causes ofsuicide. Preventing Adolescent Suicide Some states have assumed legislative initiative in suicide preventionprograms (Folk, 1984; Tugend, 1984). AJPH 77(2) 178. Researchers begin to examine youthsuicide as a national problem. Adolescentsuicide and the classroom teacher. In a society where selfesteem and social status are often derived through money, many adolescentsgrow up under the pressure of having to be number one in social, athletic,and academic pursuits. Anomieis said to arise in situations where personal bonds are discouraged.Societies with the most anomie are those that stress such values ascompetitiveness, mobility, rapid change, and materialism at the expense offamily intimacy and dedication to interpersonal relationships. They appear excessively restless and becomeeasily bored. The increasing concern about suicide has resulted partially from anumber of apparent cluster suicides during recent years (Tugend, 1984;Coleman, 1987). Experiencing recent losses: a parent's divorce, breaking up with a boyfriend or girlfriend, the death of a friend or relative, a personal injury or chronic illness, the death of a pet 8. It has also been suggested that modern society creates feelings ofanomie and insecurity in adolescents through overemphasizing competitionand financial success (Husain & Vandiver, 1984). Childhood and adolescent depression. To assert that depression isthe prime cause appears to be overly simplistic. For example, in three of New York's northern suburbs, 36adolescents killed themselves in 22 months; in Houston suburbs, adolescentstook their own lives in three months; and in Plano, Texas, sevenadolescents committed suicide in one year. Preventative legislation. Such data should eventuallyyield a clearer profile of suicidal youth and provide a sounder basis forprevention and treatment. Depressive symptoms also have been found equally in low and middleincome families, and in black as well as white families. Psychiatry 51,24. Weiner, I. In Adelson, Ed. This finding is not new but it helpsto support the contention being laid here that the presence of depressionin youths can be measured, is a reliable construct to use in identifyingchildren who might be at high risk of developing alcohol abuse, and can beused to predict alcohol abuse using expectancy testing as well asdepressive scores.Unrealistic Conceptions of Death It has also been suggested that adolescents with unrealisticconceptions about death are prone to suicidal thoughts (Husain & Vandiver,1984; McKenry, Tishler, & Christman, 198 ). According to this view, society offers malescertain outlets for expressing their aggression and frustration that aretypically denied to females. CausesDepression Many adolescents who kill themselves do manifest symptoms ofdepression, but this is not always the case. Talking or asking questions about suicide 6. Child and Adolescent Psychopathology. Accordingto cross cultural comparisons, adolescents in highly industrialized, moderncountries like Japan and the United States commit suicide more often thanthose in more rural, religious and traditional countries. Suicide issometimes envisioned as a chance to be reunited with a deceased loved one.Conceiving of death as an escape from problems rather than as a permanentend to life, suicidal youths tend to differ from nonsuicidal children intheir belief that death is temporary.Societal Factors According to some cross cultural data, in societies with a highdegree of anomie, suicide rates are higher than in countries with lowanomie. Data like these have led to the suggestion that adultsshould become more sensitive to adolescents' symptoms of depression. such acts might create genuine confusionamong young adolescents, whose views of fantasy and reality may beinfluenced by the drama of stage limits and illusive images on photoalbums. This anger directed toward theself contributes to suicidal thinking; although the reasons underlying thehigher rate of suicide attempts among the female population are debatable,girls are clearly at a higher risk than boys. Truancy, delinquency, drug abuse, or sexual permissiveness 13. Angold statesthat it is the adolescent which is more prone to develop depression.Children younger than 1 years old do not have as high depressive ratingsas do children from 12 to 19 years old. The study by Angold (1988) reviewed the literature on depression inchildren. Adolescence18, 245-257. Death themes in adolescent music: The classicyears. Psychology Today 18, 9. Manysuicidal children also report that their parents are excessively criticaland have high expectations in regard to vocational and academic goals. A history of repeated 'accidents' 12. In addition, the contributing factors which parentalconcordance of affective disorders with that of the children has beeninvestigated Merikangas, et al. The role of parental disciplinarypractices in the development of depression and alcoholism. (Weiner, 198 ) A second caveat is that researchers do not agree that suicides couldbe prevented if only someone had taken heed of the youngsters cries forhelp., Some psychologists who have worked with suicidal youths feel thatsuicide is not clearly enough related to depression to permit us toidentify suicide prone adolescents. Girls tend to learn to turn their hostilityinward rather than to express them overtly. Journal ofConsulting and Clinical Psychology 56(2),171. From the available data it appears that depression, misconceptionsabout death, a sense of anomie, family factors, and sex role influencescontribute to suicidal thoughts, but two important caveats must be pointedout. New York: Springer. (1988). To begin with, the type ofdepression that contributes to suicidal thinking often emanates from aserious loss in the adolescents life. Since males almost always have less serotonin than females, thisfinding suggests a possible link between the high attempted suicide rate offemales and chemically related impulsivity. (1988). Psychosocial factors associated with depressionin urban adolescent females. Children with depressive parents tend to developdepressive personality trait characteristics. Environmental factors contributing to thesuicide escalation include a breakdown of tribal tradition, the increasingincidence of divorce, and a decline in the importance of religion. (198 ). The ability to measure depression in children has been discussed byAngold (1988). This author is the developer of the Childhood DepressionInventory. Because of the pseudo longitudinal nature of the studythe authors concluded that the depressive disorder was present prior to thealcohol abuse. (1984). Adolescents who attempt suicidehave typically been wrestling for some time with conflicts and concernsthat they cannot resolve. Tugend, A. A fewattempt to cope with depression be joining groups that attract attention tothemselves for their unconventional values. Suicide in children andadolescents. Anomie is a condition that manifests itself as a feeling ofalienation and detachment from other individuals and from society. Even among adolescent psychiatric patients, fewerthan 2 percent are diagnosed as having problems primarily caused bydepression, yet half of these young people manifest symptoms of depressionincluding behavior such as self-deprecation, crying spells, suicidalthoughts, and experience feelings of sadness, pessimism, and worthlessness(Weiner, 198 ). Although in some of theseincidents the adolescents did not know one another, in others thefriendship between the youths suggest that their suicides may have beenrelated. Suicidal youth often reportfeeling unloved and unwanted, suggesting that their parents have beenunable to create an accepting, loving atmosphere in the home. Girls also have more depressivestates than do boys, although this is a controversial issue (Butcher,1988). Making lower grades at school 9. In support of this argument, data regarding rates of American Indianyouths are particularly instructive (Berlin, 1984). The loss might be created byincidents like someone's death, parents' divorce, or a breakup with aboyfriend or girlfriend. Boston: Faber and Faber. (1988). (1988). From 197 to 198 the male suicide rateincreased by 5 percent, in comparison to a 2 percent rise for females.Almost 9 percent of the male suicide victims are white, although there areno significant racial differences among female suicide victims. Although there is somecontroversy about the long range effects of these stressful events on achild's life, there is increasing evidence that some children never getover the divorce and often go into depressive states which last up to 1 years after the stressful event. Inaddition, researchers are continuing to examine the relationship betweensuicide and the body's chemicals. (1987). New York: Wiley.----------------------- 17 Among 15 to 19 year olds the suicide rate in 195 was between 2.7and 3.5 suicides per 1 , . For example, disobedience to elders, sexualpromiscuity, and physical aggression are generally condemned more severelyin females than in males. The diagnostic Interview Schedule was used to determine theprevalence of depressive disorders in children aged 12 to 19. Emery, P. Adolescent depression:Concepts, treatments, prevention. Gibbs, J. Berlin, I. The interesting point from this study isthat depression and alcoholism were disorders which were mostpredictive from knowledge about a child's misbehavior. Holmes, S., & Robins, L. Depression can be perfectly normal yet transitory reaction tonegative events in the adolescent's life. Butcher, J. In our culture, where death is often presented ineuphemistic, vague, or exaggerated terms, the realities of death are toooften hidden from the young. For example, low levels of the brainchemical, serotonin, have been correlated with aggressive, impulsivebehavior. Most people who fail in a suicide attempthave taken poisonous drugs, a method that increases the chances thatsomeone will discover them before death occurs. According to this view, thecognitive limitations of early adolescence an distort young people'sunderstanding of death. Adolescent depression,alcohol and drug abuse. Coleman, L. The relationship of depression to childhood experiences hasalso been investigated and supported by a number of studies (Carrison etal., 1988). In response to increasing public concern, the national centersfor disease control began extensive research on cluster suicides in 1984.In the meantime, the uncertainty over whether too much publicitycontributes to multiple suicides has made researchers proceed cautiouslyabout directing too much public attention to the matter. The preponderance ofevidence indicates that a number of other variables seem to have an impacton a person's decision to commit suicide (Emery, 1983; Weiner, 198 , 1982) Attempts are being made to identify the types of behavior that mightbe the cause of a youngster's suicide (Weiner, 198 ,1982). Holmes, S., & Robins, L. Expressing excessive shame or guilt Recognizing the need for more data to aid suicide prevention andrehabilitation, the National Centers for Disease Control and the NationalInstitutes of Mental Health instituted suicide research programs in theearly 198 s. Although the relationship between suicide and our society'sportrayals of death in the media or in the entertainment world is stilluncertain, the assistant chief of the National Centers for Disease Controlstates that there is evidence that possible people imitate suicides theyview on television or through other media sources. (1986). Complaining often about being bred 1 . Further, the tendency not to attribute suicidal motives to youngadolescents and the desire to spare families public embarrassment result ina number of suicides being officially recorded as accidents (Husain &Vandiver, 1984). This was particularly true with females who weresix times more likely to have experienced depressive symptoms. However,the use of alcohol along with the depression was more prevalent amongmales than females. Washington, DC: National American Indian Courts JudgesAssociation. They tire quickly of new activities and of former friends,searching for more entertaining substitutes. Handbook of Adolescent Psychology. According to the national centers for disease control, the increasein youth suicide is primarily due to the dramatic changes in the malesuicide rate (Tugend, 1984). (Husain & Vandiver,,l 984) References Angold, A. McKenry, P., Tishler, C., & Christman, K. Hence, academic failure, social embarrassment, adisfiguring accident, or serious illness can contribute to suicidalthinking (Husain & Vandiver, 1984; Weiner, 198 ). New York: Wiley. Journal of School Health 5 , 13 -132. BritishJournal of Psychiatry 152, 6 1-617. Increasing isolation from friends and family 3. During the last decade there appears to have been a dramatic increasein attempted and completed suicides among the adolescent population (Emery,1983). In support of this analysis, ithas been noted that the lowest anomie rates exist in tribes with the mosttraditional customs and in areas where opportunities for employment andeducation exist within the tribal community.Sex Roles Because three times as many females of every age attempt suicide thando males and use less lethal methods in their attempts, it has beensuggested that gender stereotypes may be influencing suicidal behavior(Husain & Vandiver, 1984). Carrison, C., Schluchter, M., Schoenbach, V., & Kaplan, B. By 1977 this figure had risen to 14.2, thehighest increase in the suicide rate of any group except 2 to 24 yearolds.
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