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THE SUN.
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Origin, function, dynamics, sun spots, solar cycle, in context of universal creation, composition.... More...
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Paper Abstract:
Origin, function, dynamics, sun spots, solar cycle, in context of universal creation, composition.
Paper Introduction:
THE SUN
The purpose of this paper is to describe the origin, function, and dynamics of the sun, including sunspots and the solar cycle.
In order to describe the birth of the sun it is necessary to also discuss the origin of the universe and the formation of the solar system. For even though these happenings occurred billions of years apart, each one led to the formation of the other and they are all related. What makes this even more complicated is that throughout the history of man, there have been many theories concerning these astronomical occurrences, and there are still differing opinions among scientists. The most widely accepted and well-known opinions will be presented here.
It is now an almost certainty
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To the question of why it occurred we have noanswer. Thistheory has not been readily accepted. The sun is made up primarily of hydrogen and helium. The first stars formed out of the debris of the Big Bang consistedalmost entirely of oxygen. The temperature also increases, being about 5,48 degrees C on the photosphere to over 15 million degrees C in the core(Alter 1). The radiation from this explosion became gamma rays to X-rays andultraviolet light, went through the colors of the spectrum of light, andinto the infrared and radio regions. Galileo discovered sunspots, and used them to determine the period ofrotation of the sun. The last three possibilities were, needless to say,distressing to astronomers. Also, clouds with too littlemass cannot generate temperatures high enough to begin the process ofhydrogen fusion, and thus become planets, of which Jupiter may be anexample.) Ten thousand years after the high-density core forms, sub-atomicparticles begin to shoot outward at high velocities and crate a "solarwind." This excess cloud material eventually dissipates, and after 1 , to 1 , years, light from the object becomes visible. George Ellery Hale detected sunspot magnetism in 19 8. After the collapse, the temperature rises as a high-density coreforms. In the 196 's, Raymond Davis, Jr. Spots arefound around the equator and are rarely seen at latitudes greater than 3 degrees (Hoyle 123). Fragments from this collapsed nebula arethe matter of which stars are formed. The field getsstronger with each rotation; when it reaches 1 , gauss, the magneticrepulsion can balance the pull inward of solar gravity. For unknown reasons, possibly because of pressure from a nearbysupernova, the cloud collapses. When the internal pressure reaches a certain level, the influx ofmass stops. In the last half-century the cyclehas been about 1 .5 years. This solar magnetic fieldgets stuck in the hot gas. When this matter tries to move against a magnetic field itcannot do it. When the sunspotscomplete their cycle, the polarities switch over completely for the nextcycle. This discrepancy resulted from one of four things: theexperiment was faulty, the hydrogen fusion theory was faulty, our basicunderstanding of physics was faulty or incomplete, or the sun could bemalfunctioning. They have nowhere near the lifespan of sunspots, andusually last only a few hours. The long-held belief that the energy produced at the core of the staris generated by hydrogen fusion has recently been disputed. Possibly the core temperature of the sunfluctuates, and this could explain it, they thought. A given spot at 3 -degree latitude takesabout seven per cent longer to make one rotation on the sun than a spot onthe equator. Bahcall suggested the idea of neutrino decay -- that something musthappen to the neutrinos traveling 93 million miles from the sun to theearth to be captured in our traps. What we now believe is that all of the matter in the universe wasconcentrated into a very high- density; this high-density mass was, at thetime, the complete universe. The dark interior of a sunspot is called the umbra,and the grey surroundings, the penumbra. Since theyhave no mass, they rarely run into anything, and can pass through the sun'score as if it weren't there. Hydrogen fusionbegins (and will continue for the next ten billion years until ten percentof the object's mass has been consumed) as the core temperatures reach 1 to the 7th degrees K. The reversing layer of the sun consists of the atmosphere 3 miles above the photosphere. Theyusually break out in two's appearing in about an hour, and lasting maybeonly a day, maybe much longer. Faculae reach high above the surface of the sun, and oftensurround sunspots. In older central galaxy cores there are onlysmall amounts of dust and gas, and no star formation is taking place. Large masses began to spin and shine, andthe galaxies were formed (Sagan 246). Whether this is the case or not remainsto be seen. of the Brookhaven NationalLaboratory, predicted in an experiment to capture 5.6 Solar Neutrino Units(SNU's) per day, when in actuality, he captured only 1 SNU per day(Washburn 69). The cause ofthis is neutrinos, scraps of nuclear debris that at rest have no mass.They only gain mass when they accelerate at high velocities. The formation of sunspots is as follows: The sun's hotsurface causes the abundance of free electrons, which are a good conductorof electricity. A star is born (Washburn 24). Star formationtoday seems to take place on the arms of galaxies where there are largesupplies of dust and gas. As weproceed into the sun, the gases reach a density of about 16 times thedensity of water. The reason neutrinos have made scientistsquestion the hydrogen fusion theory of the sun's core is that, according tonuclear theory, every time four protons fuse into a helium nucleus, twoneutrinos must escape. This theory hypothesizes that thenebula, which formed the sun, actually contained two to three times themass of the sun. Sunspots are 45 -mile deep depressions in the photosphere ofthe sun that can be 2 , miles in length and 3,5 miles high. The scenario: A stellar nebula about ten parsecs (or, 192 trillionmiles) across, consisting of a density of 5, atoms per cubic centimeter,has a temperature of approximately 1 degrees above absolute zero (Washburn24). (There is an upper limit which accounts for the fact that nostars 1 times larger than the sun exist. In places the field breaksthrough the photosphere and forms flux regions. Newman andTalbot suggested that maybe there was a black hole in the center of thesun, which would account for the absence of neutrinos (Washburn 69). In a huge explosion, the mass expandedoutward and is still continuing on that path. The diameter of the sun is 864,6 miles, 1 9.1 times the diameter ofthe earth. The new magnetic fieldlines have a bipolar structure. This causes electric currents to flow, which builds upanother magnetic force that opposes the motion. If the hydrogen fusion theory was correct, thereshould be more neutrinos being emitted from the sun than there are. Works CitedAlter, Dinsmore, e.al., Pictorial Astronomy, 5th ed., New York: Harper and Row, Publishers, 1983.Hoyle, Fred, Astronomy, London: Rathbone Books Limited, 1962.Mitton, Simon, Daytime Star, The Story of Our Sun, New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1981.Sagan, Carl, Cosmos, New York: Random House, 198 .Washburn, Mark, In the Light of the Sun - From Sunspots to Solar Energy, New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1981. Sunspots are not absolutely dark, but only appear tobe so in relation to the brightness of the rest of the sun. Out of this, small pockets of gas --nonuniformition -- sprang up. The pair of sunspots reveal themselvesabout a day later (Mitton 127-128). Astronomers were forced to conclude that the Big bang mighthave occurred only ten billion years ago, and not fifteen or twenty, asthey had believed (Washburn 23). The average temperature of asunspot is 4, degrees, or 2, degrees cooler than the photosphere(Mitton 118). Above this reversing layer are found thechromosphere and corona. The field linesare no longer straight, but a mass of knots. In order to describe the birth of the sun it is necessary to alsodiscuss the origin of the universe and the formation of the solar system.For even though these happenings occurred billions of years apart, each oneled to the formation of the other and they are all related. The problem of not enough neutrinos still has not been solved,and until it is, astronomers and physicists alike will continue to battleout the question of just whose theories are at fault, and hope the problemis not with the sun. The surfaceconsists of a very thin layer of gases, which is one-hundredth the densityof earth's air. These are theopposite of sunspots; they are regions of brightness much greater than thephotosphere. On the edge of one of the billions of galaxies in the universe lieour sun and solar system. Their fusion reactions created heavierelements, and over billions of years, new generations of stars were formedfrom these heavier elements that were ejected into space. The lines f force get stretched at the equator,because it moves faster, like elastic rubber bands. Some days there will be nosunspots, some days up to two hundred. THE SUN The purpose of this paper is to describe the origin, function, anddynamics of the sun, including sunspots and the solar cycle. Scientists are desperate for anexplanation because, if we don't know how the sun was formed, then ourwhole understanding of stellar evolution might be faulty. There are also gases of a ten-billionth density of waterone hundred miles above the photosphere in the sun's atmosphere. But, that wasimpossible because this would make the earth's climates change so much thatlife on earth would have long ago become a thing of the past. These galaxies are still movingoutward; but in 1979, when it was discovered that some distant galaxieswere moving twice as fast as was previously thought, this meant that theyhad reached their present locations in half the time that had beentheorized. What makesthis even more complicated is that throughout the history of man, therehave been many theories concerning these astronomical occurrences, andthere are still differing opinions among scientists. Also,the two spots in a pair have opposite polarities, and the leading spot in agiven hemisphere is always of the same polarity. As the excess cloud material dissipated, some of thematter was left behind and became the planets of the solar system. That solar activity is magnetic in origin occurs because the sundoes not rotate as a rigid body. The sun generatesenergy at the rate of 3.8 X 1 to the 33rd ergs per second. The early universe was made up ofradiation, hydrogen and helium. The most widelyaccepted and well-known opinions will be presented here.It is now an almost certainty that the Big bang theory actually occurredand began the universe. A theory called the "massive solar nebula model" explains how theplanets were formed from the sun. The sun is a typical star, and its birth can begeneralized to that of the relatively young stars in the universe. It completesone counterclockwise rotation every 25 days and one hour (Alter 2). As the sunspot numbers increase, they migratetoward the sun's equator. The plot of the monthly average of the number of sunspots shows thatsunspot activity is definitely cyclic. Its mass is 333,5 times that of the earth. In the 195 'sit was shown that solar active regions have bipolar magnetic fields. Considered a young star, the sun was born 4.5billion years ago. Another characteristic of the sun are the faculae.
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