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PARENTAL USE OF CORPORAL PUNISHMENT.

Examines effects of income and education levels on parental views and use of corporal punishment. Hypothesizes that low-income, less educated parents use physical force more than verbal assertion. Discusses many studies on the topic that reveal corporal punishment to be prevelent despite negative consequences and decreased attitudes toward its practice.

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EFFECTS OF INCOME AND EDUCATION LEVELS ON PARENTAL CORPORAL PUNISHMENT
Abstract
The purpose of this research paper is to investigate effects of income and education levels on parental views and uses of corporal punishment. A review of the literature will be used to address the following hypothesis: lower income and educational levels will be positively associated with higher tendencies to believe in and practice, spanking. The population investigated will include both parents but will focus on mothers. It is expected that the research will support the hypothesis.
Introduction
The following review of the literature will present fin

(1999). Despite maternal beliefsin positive aspects of spanking, Turner and Finkelhor (1996) reported thatcorporal punishment by parents results in psychological distress anddepression in the child. The authors also report results of their own study: boys were spankedmore than girls, mothers spanked more than fathers, older children (7 yearsand older) were spanked less than younger children, Black mothers (notBlack fathers) spanked more than other groups, child attributes(competence, difficult) were related to spanking use, parentcharacteristics (mental health, educational level, age, religious)predicted spanking, and parent-child interaction was a predictor ofspanking (arguing, social support, household size) (Day, Peterson, &McCracken, 1998). P. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 61, 9 8-919. While studies ofthe father's attitudes and practices are few, it is noted either fathersare similar to mothers or that mothers tend to spank more. D., Peterson, G. Influences of Parents Socioeconomic Status, Ethnicity,and Beliefs. Montes, M. Introduction The following review of the literature will present findings to testthe expectation and hypothesis that lower income and educational levelswill be positively associated with higher tendencies to believe in andpractice, spanking. Predictingspanking of younger and older children by mothers and fathers. (1999). Holden, G. Day, R. (1995). Socolar, R. Journal of Marriage and Family Psychology, 34(3), 38 -4 . The population investigated will include both parents but willfocus on mothers. (1996). E., Bates, J. Black race was associated with verbalassertion and mild physical force, AFDC recipients used physical forcemore, and higher education was associated with less physical force and moreverbal assertion. Evaluations,attributions, affect, and disciplinary choices in mothers at high and lowrisk for child physical abuse. Davis (1999) also reported that national survey data has shown adecrease in support for corporal punishment in the U. D. Data also reflects limited focus on differences in the ages ofthe children. Child Abuse & Neglect, 25, 1 15-1 36. This group also reported that they felt the child behaved more inthe long run and they felt less maternal guilt, compared to mothers whospanked occasionally or never spanked. The instrumentalside of corporal punishment: Parents' reported practices and outcomeexpectancies. African Americans reported harsherdiscipline practices with particular emphasis on low-income parents. As the children get older, other factors are reported.Adolescent corporal punishment is associated with authoritarian disciplinetechniques. (1998). Flyn, C. Findings were that spanking was used forstealing or being disrespectful, limit setting was used for disobeying, andverbal assertion was used for lying. Of this group, 42percent had spanked their child in the past week. Women living at povertylevels reported spanking more often, and women with higher incomes andeducation levels reported spanking less. Thus although other factors mayalso be an influence, such as regional differences, the research hypothesisis supported. Day, Peterson, and McCracken (1998) stated that information regardingspanking attitudes and practices is reliant on secondary data sets that useinformation gleaned from questions that ask if the parent spanked the childrecently. (1999). Pediatrics, 95(1), 1 5-111. Regional differences in spanking experiences andattitudes: A comparison of northeastern and southern college students.Journal of Family Violence, 11(1), 59-8 . Corporal punishment as astressor among youth. Corporal punishment continues to be prevalent andeffects can be negative, demonstrating the need for this investigation.Davis (1999) reported that over 9 percent of the American population ofparents slap or spank their young children and around half of this groupcontinues to use this form of punishment into the adolescent years.Holden, Miller, and Harris (1999) pointed out that mothers who report usingcorporal punishment at least one time per week, stated that they believe itresults in positive outcomes such as the child complying with the mother'swishes. S., & Stein, R. EFFECTS OF INCOME AND EDUCATION LEVELS ON PARENTAL CORPORAL PUNISHMENT Abstract The purpose of this research paper is to investigate effects ofincome and education levels on parental views and uses of corporalpunishment. M., Catellier, D., & Kotch,J. Socolar, Winsor, Hunter, Catellier, and Kotch (1999) studied a groupfrom North Carolina (186 maternal caregivers) to determine disciplinepractices and associated factors. Corporal punishment cessation social contexts andparents' experiences. Maternal disciplinary practices in an at-risk population.Archives Pediatric Adolescence Medicine, 153, 927-933. S., &Zelli, A. In a study of collegestudents in the Northeast and the South, aspects of spanking were assessed.Findings showed that Northeastern students reported less likelihood towardbeing hit at all and were hit less frequently than Southern students.Northeastern students also reported that they felt their spankings werejustified and this group tended to be less in favor of spanking. E. Pinderhughes, E. Pinderhughes, Bates, Dodge, Petit, and Zelli (2 ) reported ondiscipline responses with regard to parent socioeconomic status, ethnicity,stress, cognitive-emotional processes, and beliefs about parenting.Findings were that parental beliefs about spanking, child aggression, andfamily stress were mediating factors in the negative correlation betweensocioeconomic status and discipline. (2 1). W., Miller, P. Differences between mother andfather attitudes were not found. Despite these shortcomings, studieshave shown that higher frequencies of spanking are related to socioeconomicstatus and that mothers living in the South, in poverty, with lowereducation, who are religious, and are African American tend to report morespanking. Conclusion A review of the literature pointed out that corporal punishmentcontinues to be prevalent despite possible negative consequences anddecreased attitudes toward its practice. Studies have attempted todetermine factors associated with the use of spanking. (1996). Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 14(5), 492-51 . W. Socolar, R. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 58, 155-166. C., & Harris, S. Spanking infants andtoddlers: Maternal belief and practice. It is expected that the research will support thehypothesis. A., Petit, G. For Example, it is only recently that research hasdetermined that spanking incidence and severity tends to diminish as thechild grows older (8 to 1 years). References Davis, P. P., dePaul, J., & Milner, J. K. In a studyshowing the cessation of spanking as children got older, these changes weremade by middle-class, college-educated women who had taken parent-educationclasses. E., Dodge, K. B. Further understanding for tendencies for spanking is presented byMontes, dePaul, and Milner (2 1). Thisstudy controlled for religion, parental education, and gender, andconcluded that regional differences were the most important factor. In a study of high and low riskmothers, results showed that high-risk mothers reported higher levels ofhostile intent, aversiveness, annoyance, stable and global attributions,and the use of power-assertion discipline techniques, as responses tovignettes. Additional study limitations includethe global assessment of spanking frequency and the use of self-reportmeasures, which may be inaccurate. S. S. R. Flynn (1996) elaborated on the regional factor that has been reportedas a contributor to corporal punishment attitudes. Itwas also found that cognitive-emotional processes and child perceptionsmediated stress effects on discipline. A review of the literature will be used to address thefollowing hypothesis: lower income and educational levels will bepositively associated with higher tendencies to believe in and practice,spanking. Journal ofMarriage and the Family, 6 , 74-94. A., & Finkelhor, D. A study by Socolar and Stein (1995) found that 19 percent of themothers reported that they felt there are times when it is appropriate tospank a child that is less than one year of age; 74 percent stated thatthis was true for children one to three years of age. Turner, H. S., Winsor, J., Hunter, W. R. W., & McCracken, C. (2 ). Although manyfactors have been shown to be associated with this type of discipline, lowincome and education are among these variables. since the late196 s and that these changes are particularly reflected in women who arehighly educated or live in regions other than the South.

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