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History of Electricity

Discusses the history of electricity in the 20th and 21st centuries in the United States with an emphasis on the inventions of Nikola Tesla.

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Electrification Its Impact on the th and st CenturiesIntroduction The word electricity derives from the Greek word electron translatedinto English as amber It is in use because Thales of Miletus who livedbetween and B C E is said to have discovered that when amber isrubbed it acquires the property of attracting light objects According to Jill Jonnes Thales was an erudite philosopher and astronomerin the thriving Ionian port of Miletus who may well have been the first toobserve the qualities of amber

The present study has focused on thecontributions of Nikola Tesla, Thomas Edison, and to a lesser degree,George Westinghouse. As this report has suggested, this hasbeen a process of gradual advancement in which a large number ofindividuals played important roles. 25.[1 ] Anonymous. Many milestones "dramatize thepractical working success of electricity during this period, including: thecreation of the gas engine; the development of the feed-back, superheterodyne, and regenerative circuits, the opening of the electricallycontrolled Panama Canal, the development of the atomic substation, thediscovery of superconductivity, and the first transmitted speech by radiotelephone across the Atlantic."[36] The telephone emerged in thisparticular era as well and most significantly in the era immediatelyfollowing World War I (1914-1918) electricity was transformed from a luxuryenjoyed by a small handful of the wealthy to a necessity. 2 -23.Himself an engineer, inventor, and free lance writer, D'alto has builtreplicas of Tesla's patented machines for museums and learning centers.This article focuses on Tesla's focus on AC or alternating current and hisconflicts with Thomas Edison over the AC/DC controversy. Itwill be argued that electrification has been a dominant source of ongoingindustrial and economic development for more than 15 years and is vital tocontinued development in poorer regions of the world today. Over time Tesla's work with Westinghouse resultedin a number of new patents for such devices as a wireless transmissionsystem which would be known as radio and various techniques for wirelessbroadcasting of information and transmission of power.[24] Tesla's widerange of interests while with Westinghouse certainly enriched the companywhich benefitted enormously from use of the Tesla coil. Electrification: Its Impact on the 2 th and 21st CenturiesIntroduction The word electricity derives from the Greek word electron, translatedinto English as amber. 6.[5] See Anonymous, "The History of Electricity - A Timeline." 2 6-2 9.pp. 17.[2] Ibid., pp. 1 7.[22] Ibid.[23] Olga Markovich, op. cit., p. Infact, the friction may have been based upon the fact that the two men hadvastly different backgrounds and approaches to work and, moresignificantly, the fact that Edison favored DC and Tesla was convinced thatAC was far superior.[2 ] For whatever reason their relationship deteriorated, the end resultwas a long-lasting feud which led Tesla to take a position with Edison'sarch rival, George Westinghouse. 226.[44] Ibid., pp. "Tesla Rediscovered." Canadian Consulting Engineer, January 2, 2 6, 47(1), p. Available at www.ebscohost.com.Lee appears to have sufficient expertise in various engineering fields toidentify key features of Tesla's accomplishments and his collaboration withThomas Edison. Aragoconfirmed the relationship between electricity and magnetism."[1 ] Throughout the nineteenth century seminal discoveries by Georg Ohm,Michael Faraday, Joseph Henry, Hippolyte Pixii, Thomas Davenport, SirWilliam Robert Grove, James Prescott Joule, Samuel Morse, J.C. In 192 , the Federal PowerCommission (FPC) was established to oversee this industry. George Westinghouse, thehead of Westinghouse Electric Company, bought the patent rights to the ACsystem.The first use of a large windmill to generate electricity was built byinventor Charles Brush. 38.[4 ] Ibid., p. 1 7-1 8.Schneider is an engineer and contributor to many publications. Available at http://web.ebscohost.com.[13] Anonymous. Companies that elect to work on electrical projects in thesecountries are likely to garner increased revenues and to offset potentialdeclines in more established markets such as that of the United States.[47] Stern points out that in the last several years, groups like theWorld Bank, UNDP, and IUEP have stepped up their energy projects indeveloping countries in Eastern Europe, Africa, East Asia, and LatinAmerica.[48] U.S. The "volt" isnamed in his honor.18 8 Humphrey Davy invented the first effective "arc lamp." The arc lampwas a piece of carbon that glowed when attached to a battery by wires.182 Separate experiments by Hans Christian Oersted, A.M. "A Wizard's Vision of a Wireless World." Odyssey, January 2 8, 17(1), pp. Her briefdiscussion of Tesla's most significant inventions also provides a briefbiographical sketch of the inventor. p. cit., p. Pixxi'sdynamo used a crank to rotate a magnet around a piece of iron wrapped withwire. Major buildingprojects such as the Hoover Dam helped to advance this process while theinvention of the transistor by scientists at Bell Telephone Laboratorieswas also of great significance as was the establishment of the first 345Kilovolt transmission line in 1953. Annotated Bibliography: Tesla and ElectricityAnonymous. Hiswork was an important precursor in the development of Nuclear MagneticResonance Imaging. It traces theconflict between these inventors. In 1883, while working for the Continental EdisonCompany, he constructed the first induction motor."[16] Also in 1883, Tesla invented a device known as the Tesla coil, whichwas a transformer capable of changing electricity from low to high voltagewhile making it easier to transport over longer distances. Consumptionof electricity in the United States and in many European countries is seenby industry analysts as likely to decrease with technological efficiencieswhereas the most significant growth in energy consumption is expected to bein developing countries led by Asia. cit., p. Itcontains multiple drawings by Tesla. cit., p. It is also important to recognize as does GaryStern that there are nearly two billion people in Third World countriestoday who have no access to electricity and whose lives are thereforenegatively affected by this lack.[45] Stern pointed out that there areenormous opportunities for utility companies to penetrate emerging marketsand to partner with governments to help build and develop theinfrastructure in these markets. 3-4.[12] M. in San Francisco was the firstelectric company to sell electricity to customers. Until this time electricity hadbeen generated using direct current (DC) from batteries. Station (Chicago).19 3 First successful gas turbine (France).World's first all turbine station (Chicago).Shawinigan Water & Power installs world's largest generator (5, Watts)and world's largest and highest voltage line-136 Km and 5 Kilovolts (toMontreal).19 8 Electric vacuum cleaner - J. Teslarelied on moments of inspiration while Edison was a trial-and-error man.Edison was self-educated while Tesla had a formal European education.Edison believed in DC while Tesla favored AC."[18] As described by Nick D'alto, the relationship between Edison andTesla soon deteriorated. 15-16.Stern is a journalist who has spent much time investigating issuesregarding Third World development. Ampere, andD.F.G. In Tesla's day, "althoughmore was known about electricity than ever before, and people realized ispotential value as a powerful source of energy, one major question stillremained to be answered. The article further provides support for the thesis ofthe report that various inventions and inventors, including Tesla, Edisonand Westinghouse played a seminal role in moving the sector forward.Anonymous. In 1928, withthe construction of Boulder Dam using taxpayer revenues, government becamemore involved in the energy sector than ever before. cit., pp. Jill Jonnes reports that in16 , London physician and philosopher William Gilbert replicated the amberexperiments of Thales and also experimented widely in the area ofmagnetism.[6] Gilbert's great electrical discovery and contribution to thefield was that numerous hard materials including amber could be electrifiedwhen rubbed as well as discoveries regarding the relationship betweenweather, water, and other substances impacted upon electricity. She contrasts the personalities and achievements of the three keyfigures in the history of electricity. Pittsburgh: Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Company, 1893. 17.[34] Kristina Fiore, op. 54.[28] Ibid.[29] Mary Beth Cox, op. thehistoircalarchibve.com/happenings/the-history-of-electricity....[6] Jill Jonnes, op. It is used in the studyto provide insight into the ongoing development of electrical services invarious settings. The transformer was an important part of Tesla'salternating current (AC) system, still used to deliver electricity today.1884 Nikola Tesla invented the electric alternator, an electric generatorthat produces alternating current (AC). The book is particularly useful inidentifying the interactions of these three figures, their conflicts, andthe significance of Tesla's association with both Edison and Westinghouse.Of special significance is the conflict over alternating versus directcurrent.Lee, M. AC electricalsystems are better for sending electricity over long distances.Steam turbine generator, capable of generating huge amounts of electricity,was invented by Sir Charles Algernon Parsons.1886 William Stanley developed the induction coil transformer and analternating current electric system.1888 Nikola Tesla demonstrated the first "polyphase" alternating current(AC) electrical system. Carrier.1913 T. It is useful in focusing on seminalcontributions of individuals such as Thomas Edison.Cox, Mary Beth. It helps in thereport by identifying the key contributions of these two leaders in thefield of electricity.Fiore, Kristina. It describesTesla's legacy and his world system. Because this devise used a coil of wire, it produced spikes ofelectric current followed by no current.1835 Joseph Henry invented the electrical relay, used to send electricalcurrents long distances.1837 Thomas Davenport invented the electric motor, an invention that isused in most electrical appliances today.1839 Sir William Robert Grove developed the first fuel cell, a device thatproduces electrical energy by combining hydrogen and oxygen.1841 James Prescott Joule showed that energy is conserved in electricalcircuits involving current flow, thermal heating, and chemicaltransformations. While Edison was immediately impressed by Teslaand hired him on the spot, their early friendship dissolved, some say "in adispute over money. Stern, "Third World Power Prospects," Energy Biz Magazine,September/October 2 5, p. Overall, the portrait that emerges from this analysisis of a sequential development in which increasingly sophisticatedknowledge and applications of the potential of electricity have beendeveloped. For example, in 2 4, China had 15percent economic growth, Vietnam had 1 percent, and Peru had sevenpercent. His correctunderstanding of the nature of electricity paved the way for the future.18 First electric battery invented by Alessandro Volta. This comprehensive history of electricityidentifies key events and actors in the ongoing research and practicalapplications within the field. He also described an electric motor.1832 Using Faraday's principles, Hippolyte Pixii built the first "dynamo,"an electric generator capable of delivering power for industry. Jonnesnotes that "for more than half a century, human knowledge and understandingof electricity progressed little further.... He is relatively unknown in many circles. Tesla "began tovisualize a motor that used alternating electrical current for transmissionand distribution. 22.[9] Ibid. 71.[27] Olga Markovich, op. cit., p. 5.[42] David Bodanis, op. Perhaps the most significant aspect of the various professionalrelationships enjoyed by Tesla with first Edison and then Westinghouse wasthe "War of the Currents." Much of the early period in whichelectrification was rapidly emerging throughout urban America and thenpenetrating the rural landscape was a period in which the competingmerits of AC and DC current (and the related economic interests of Edisonon the one side and Westinghouse and Tesla on the other) were to be seen.As Schneider points out, the AC distribution system developed by Tesla andput into widespread use by Westinghouse and his companies was much morepractical than the DC system that had originally powered a number of theelevators serving Manhattan via Consolidated Edison.[31] Nevertheless, DCpower continues to be used in some limited applications but on balance itmust be recognized that Tesla's AC project was much more efficient and hasbecome the standard for generating large quantities of electrical currentthroughout many different industries.Electrification Moves Forward David Bodanis pointed out that in the early years of the twentiethcentury, great strides were made in terms of developing new and ever moreefficient and effective applications for electrical power, many of whichwere based upon patents produced by Tesla.[32] While Tesla's WorldWireless System did not ultimately bear fruit, due to the fact that theproject was plagued by cost overruns and unforeseen technical difficulties,the basic format of Tesla's concept was advanced by Guglielmo Marconi inhis invention of the equipment that facilitated the first trans-Atlanticradio transmission in 19 1.[33] Today, Tesla's dreams of wireless andinstantaneous communication is being pursued by researchers at MIT who areusing a concept called wireless electricity to do such things as lightbulbs from a distant power source. Available at http://books.google.com.This text written by Tesla and published by the Westinghouse Company is anin depth explication of the many Tesla patents, including those in whichthe Westinghouse Company was invested such as the multiphase or polyphasesystem, the electromagnetic motor, and AC generators. This wonderful property of theplanet, that, electrically speaking, is through its very bigness small, isof incalculable significance for the future of mankind."[34] The development of Tesla's AC motor made electricity both cheap andplentiful at the close of the nineteenth century and into the early decadesof the twentieth century.[35] Tesla went on to study X-rays and came upwith methods by which they could be produced to photograph the body. 56.[15] Olga Markovich, "Tesla Rediscovered," Canadian Consulting Engineer,January 2, 2 6, 47(1), p. Lee, op. 2 -24.[18] Olga Markovich, op. It has delineated the key contributions of a number of individualsamong whom Thomas Edison, George Westinghouse, and Nikola Tesla were viewedas most significant. The second decade of the twentieth century was definitively marked byextraordinary expansion in the United States due to advances inindustrialization and communication. 4 -42.[45] Gary M. 2. 54.[16] Ibid.[17] Kristina Fiore, "Reviving Tesla's Wireless Power Initiatives,"Electronic Design, September 13, 2 7, 55(2 ), pp. It supports the idea thatTesla ultimately collaborated with the Westinghouse Company, Edison'slargest competitor, due to his frustration over the relationship withEdison.Markovich, Olga. In 1913, there were 8, membersin this organization which sought to harness the power of electricity toimprove both business and home life, to create labor saving devices, and togenerally increase the productivity and profitability of the business andindustrial sectors.[37] As the attached Timeline found in Appendix A demonstrates, there werenumerous achievements during this era including the establishment of thefirst power line between the United States and Canada at Niagara Falls in19 1, the development of turbine stations in cities such as Chicago, thecreation of electric vacuum cleaners, washing machines, and airconditioners, and the discovery of photoelectric cells in 1923.[38] DuringWorld War I, government worked directly with electrical contractors anddealers to develop equipment for use in the war effort. 36.[37] Ibid., p. v. The Pearl Street Station was adirect current (DC) power system, unlike the power systems that we usetoday which use alternating current (AC).The first hydroelectric station opened in Wisconsin.Edward Johnson first put electric lights on a Christmas tree.1883 Nikola Tesla invented the "Tesla coil", a transformer that changeselectricity from low voltage to high voltage making it easier to transportover long distances. The next major electricaladvance came almost unwittingly."[7] This occurred when Otto von Guericke,the Lutheran mayor of Magdeburg in contemporary Germany used a small sphereof sulphur to identify sparks created when this material was rubbed orspun. Edison remained a playerthrough the 192 s, but he was replaced by other inventors who wereenormously influential in taking basic concepts of electricity and its usesand manipulating them to provide for increasingly sophisticatedapplications.[43] Today, the United States is one of the world leaders in both theproduction and use of electricity. 16 .[43] Ibid. Edison was highly competitive and was intentearly in his career on improving upon the work done by Bell in terms of thetelephone. 4.[14] David Bodanis, op. 15-18.Cox is a professional chemist and frequent contributor to Odyssey who hasexplored the work of Nikola Tesla in depth. Elsewhere, experiments in Italy by Alessandro Voltaresulted in the creation of the first electric battery, while in 18 8,Humphrey Davy invented the first effective arc lamp and in 182 "separateexperiments by Hans Christian Oersted, A.M. 17-18.[3] David Bodanis, Electric Universe (New York: Crown, 2 5), pp. In 1879, Edison "invented anincandescent light built that could be used for about 4 hours withoutburning out. cit., p. Goss.192 Federal Power Commission (FPC).1921 Lakeside Power Plant in Wisconsin becomes the world's first powerplant to burn only pulverized coal.1922 Connecticut Valley Power Exchange (CONVEX) starts, pioneeringinterconnection between utilities.1923 Photoelectric cells were discovered.1928 Construction of Boulder Dam begins.Federal Trade Commission begins investigation of holding companies.1933 Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) established.1935 Public Utility Holding Company Act.Federal Power Act.Securities and Exchange Commission.Bonneville Power Administration.First night baseball game in major leagues (Reds vs. 54.[24] Mary Beth Cox, "A Wizard's Vision of a Wireless World," Odyssey,January 2 8, 17(1), pp. In 1933, theTennessee Valley Authority (TVA) was established and in 1935 a number ofCongressional acts further integrated the national government into theregulation of this sector. 1-4. In the "Great Hall of Electricity, theTesla polyphase system of alternating current power generation andtransmission was displayed to awestruck crowds. He worked briefly for Edison but Olga Markovich pointsout that the two men shared only an inability to do without much sleep anda passion for experimentation: "But there the similarities ended. By 188 hisbulbs could be used for 12 hours.1879 Electric lights (Brush arc lamps) were first used for public streetlighting, in Cleveland, Ohio.California Electric Light Company, Inc. 121-123.[33] Mary Beth Cox, op. cit., p. 24.[35] M. WhileTesla's ideas may have been more successful than those of Edison in somefields, Edison is far better known. "Reviving Tesla's Wireless Power Initiatives." Electronic Design, September 13, 2 7, 55(2 ), pp. patents on the polyphase AC system of generators,motors, and transformers. Theambitiousness of the project might sound too far-fetched."[3 ]The relationship between Westinghouse and Tesla was not negatively impactedby this involvement with Morgan, but Tesla's Long Island project was notthe success that he had anticipated. 3.[36] Anonymous. Edison not only created a telephone system that was morepowerful and effective than that developed by Bell, but in 1878, foundedthe Edison Electric Light Co. It is useful in highlighting thecomplex and at times tense relationships between Tesla, Edison, andWestinghouse, the three giants of the early age of electrification.Schneider, David. 6 degrees Fahrenheit in early 192 s.Boulder (Hoover) Dam was completed. cit., p. This article is useful in supportingthe assertion in the report that a lack of electrification and relatedtechnologies in the Third World has inhibited development there. Second, those containing poles or parts of differentmagnetic susceptibility, which under the energizing influence of the samecurrent or two currents coinciding in phase will exhibit differences intheir magnetic periods of phases."[26] Tesla's relationship with Westinghouse was close and when J.P. It is useful in supporting the thesisthat Tesla made vital but often underestimated contributions to thedevelopment of electricity and electrical power systems.Jonnes, Jill. p. The company used twosmall Brush generators to power 21 Brush arc light lamps.1881 The electric streetcar was invented by E.W. Francis Hawksbee, curator of instruments at the British RoyalSociety, created an electrostatic machine in 17 9, leading others to studythe field.[8] As Jonnes says, "the mysteries and marvels of electricity absorbedmany of the brightest intellects of early eighteenth-century Europe but thenext electrical advances emanated from a very unlikely venue, the Britishcolonies of North America."[9] Many of the advances that occurred in themid to late eighteenth century can be attributed to the work of Franklinwho undertook many experiments designed to identify the capacities of man-made electricity. 5.[39] Anonymous, "Electrification Takes Hold," op. However, as Bodanis suggests, when onethinks of electricity in the United States, one invariably thinks first ofEdison who has obtained over time almost mythological status and who isgenerally credited with many more successes than he actually achievedduring the course of his career.[44]Electricity and the Developing World The primary focus of this report has been on the process ofelectrification and how it has impacted upon the Western world in generaland the United States in particular throughout the twentieth and into thetwenty-first centuries. This World Wireless System was sold, so to speak, to J.P. New York: Crown, 2 5.Bodanis is an author and former professor of intellectual history at theUniversity of Oxford in England. Morganattempted to manipulate the stock market to purchase Westinghouse's Tesla'spatents, Tesla acceded to Westinghouse's request that he forego hisroyalties so that the Westinghouse Company could be saved.[27] Teslaaccommodated Westinghouse, tearing up his contract, but the gesture meantthat he would forever be troubled with financial difficulties.[28] Despitethis closeness, Tesla ultimately left the Westinghouse firm and moved on toestablish his own company. Maxwell,Charles Brush, and Joseph Swan were instrumental in moving the fieldforward.[11] It was in the later years of the nineteenth century thatthese and other inventions resulted in the establishment of a long historyof scientific investigation into the nature and usefulness of electricity.At this juncture, three figures who would be of enormous significance infurther advancing the field began to experiment. 16.[3 ] Ibid.[31] David Schneider, op. Equally significant, according toDavid Bodanis, in the 193 s and 194 s, was the work of Alan Turing whohelped to advance the field of computer technology.[42] Turing'sactivities ultimately resulted in a prototype of the computers that havebecome virtually ubiquitous throughout the United States today.Invariably, there was large number of other scientists working withtransistors and silicon chips and other devices who were equally importantin moving the field of electricity forward. He didnot tell Morgan that the tower would also have the capacity to transmitpower from its source to distant factories and other manufacturing centers. It is useful in illustrating the limitsof both approaches while asserting that DC seems to be more viable in manyapplications than AC.Stern, Gary M. 38.[41] Anonymous. "Nikola Tesla: Edison and Electricity; Legacy." Biography, 2 6. At the same time,providing electrical lighting power for homes across the nation wasrecognized as a major source of business for electrical contractor-dealersand the emerging public utility companies that would provide suchservices.[39] With the end of the war, the extension of electricity services to thefarmland in the United States proceeded rapidly. The contributions of individuals like Tesla should not beunderestimated. These acts include the Public Utility HoldingCompany Act, the Federal Power Act, the Securities and Exchange Commission,and the Bonneville Power Administration.[41] In the 193 s and 194 s the basic foundation of the Americanelectricity grid was in place although it would certainly be expandedsignificantly in the decades before and after World War II. p. "The History of History - A Timeline," op. Spangler.Electric washing machine- A. Thistransformer was instrumental in Tesla's alternating current (AC)system.[17] Although Tesla had worked in Europe for the Continental EdisonCompany, he did not arrive in the United States until 1864 or meet Edisonuntil that time. Many, many more key actors and individuals creatednew devices and new uses for electricity that are of equal significance tothe work done by these pioneers. Morgan as aproject that would ultimately transmit long-range power signals. "Electrification Takes Hold," Electrical Construction &Maintenance, June 2 1, 1 (6), p. Murray created the first air pollution control device, the "cindercatcher."Electric refrigerator - A. This article asserts thatTesla was ahead of his time, an innovative inventor and a visionary whocreated a number of patented devices that continue to be used in the fieldof electricity generation, conductivity, radiation, and communication. By 188 his bulbs could be used for 1,2 hours."[13] Thus, in the late 187 s, a surge of invention took place in whichelectricity became a key focus of much research that would ultimatelycreate electric motors for street cars, residential lighting, streetlighting, and industrial applications. It illustrates the fact, discussed in the report, that thedevelopment not only of electricity per se, but of its many different uses,has been an ongoing activity occurring over several centuries.Bodanis, David. 15. 15-16.[25] Nikola Tesla, Transmission of Power (Pittsburgh, PA: WestinghouseElectric & Manufacturing Company, 1893), p. Over time, any number of scholars and scientists throughout Europesearched for mechanisms that would create more than occasional outbursts ofenergy. Arago confirmed the relationship between electricity and magnetism.1821 The first electric motor was invented by Michael Faraday.1826 Georg Ohm defined the relationship between power, voltage, current andresistance in "Ohms Law."1831 Using his invention the induction ring, Michael Faraday proved thatelectricity can be induced (made) by changes in an electromagnetic field.Faraday's experiments about how electric current works, led to theunderstanding of electrical transformers and motors.Joseph Henry separately discovered the principle of electromagneticinduction but didn't publish his work. 'The History of Electricity - A Timeline," op. A unit of thermal energy, the Joule, was named after him.1844 Samuel Morse invented the electric telegraph, a machine that couldsend messages long distances across wire.186 's Mathematical theory of electromagnetic fields published. After that, more than 8 percent of all electrical devices in industry used alternatingcurrent."[23] So impressed with AC that he chose to use this current to harness thepower of Niagara Falls was Lord Kelvin (head of the International NiagaraFalls Commission), that he awarded Westinghouse the contract for buildingthis vital energy source. This was one ofseveral important products that benefitted Westinghouse who ultimatelyowned 4 basic U.S. Morgan to build a colossal tower known as theWardenclyffe Tower at a cost of $15 , . Itdescribes efforts to expand electrification and also the economic effectsof this process.Tesla, Nikola. 54.Markovich is the editor of a scientific journal in Canada. Tesla's career was controversial and perhaps his major achievementwas his victory in the "War of the Currents" in which he challengedEdison's determination to establish DC as the normative current to be usedin the United States. "Electrification Takes Hold." Electrical Construction & Maintenance, June 2 1, 1 (6), pp. Overall, Tesla should be regarded as one of the great heroes of thestory of electrification. Tesla's AC system continues to dominate with somefew exceptions. In 1919, it wasfirmly believed that electric power would replace some of the manpowerrequired in agricultural work. Simultaneously, inventorsfocused their efforts on the development of electrical farm equipment thatwould streamline farming and create greater efficiencies. This report draws upon a variety of sources to provide an answer tothe foregoing research question. cit., p. Siemens1882 Thomas Edison opened the Pearl Street Power Station in New York City.The Pearl Street Station was one of the world's first central electricpower plants and could power 5, lights. Edison's DC system, "by contrast, required thatthe generating station be located within a mile or so of where theelectricity was to be used."[22] Westinghouse acquired Tesla and his services in part by purchasingTesla's patents. 2 .[8] Ibid. cit., p. "The History of Electricity - A Timeline," op. 54.[19] Nick D'alto, "Edison, Tesla, and the Battle of the Currents," Odyssey,February 2 2, 11(2), p. New York: Random House, 2 3.Historian and journalist Jill Jonnes describes the relative accomplishmentsof Edison, Tesla, and Westinghouse in the final decades of the nineteenthcentury. cit., p. Phillies) was playedin Ohio on May 24th.1936 Highest steam temperature reaches 9 degrees Fahrenheit vs. J.C.Maxwell created a new era of physics when he unified magnetism, electricityand light. Indeed, a unique electrical society was formed in Austin, Texas in1899 called the Jovians, an organization made up of individuals engaged inthe business of harnessing electricity. "Edison, Tesla, and the Battle of the Currents." Odyssey, February 2 2, 11(2), pp. Available at http://www. in New York City, buying a number of patentsrelated to electric lighting and undertaking experiments to develop apractical and long-lasting light bulb. It was there that he encountered the Grammedynamo, a device employing Direct Current (DC) to operate as a generatorand, when reversed, to function as an electric motor. "Edison's Final Revenge." American Scientist, March/April 2 8, 96(2), pp. Many of Tesla's patents formed the basis of work done byothers and while Tesla himself died with limited resources, his workproduced many multimillionaires including Westinghouse himself. 15.[46] Ibid.[47] Ibid.[48] Ibid.[49] Ibid., p. 2 .[2 ] Ibid., p 21.[21] David Schneider, "Edison's Final Revenge," American Scientist,March/April 2 8, 96(2), p. Electric Universe. Maxwell's four laws of electrodynamics ("Maxwell's Equations")eventually led to electric power, radios, and television.1876 Charles Brush invented the "open coil" dynamo (or generator) thatcould produce a study current of electricity.1878 Joseph Swan, and Englishman, invented the first incandescent lightbulb(also called an "electric lamp"). According to Mary Beth Cox, Tesla "was afraid of scaring Morgan. Tesla had introduced these ideas in a paperwhich he delivered before the American Institute of Electrical Engineers in1888.[25] While working with Westinghouse, Tesla divided AC motors into twoprinciple types of forms: "first, those containing two or more energizing-circuits through which are caused to pass alternating currents differingfrom one another.... It is in use because Thales of Miletus, who livedbetween 64 and 546 B.C.E., is said to have discovered that when amber isrubbed, it acquires the property of attracting light objects.[1]According to Jill Jonnes, Thales was an "erudite philosopher and astronomerin the thriving Ionian port of Miletus" who may well have been the first toobserve the qualities of amber which enable it to create staticelectricity; certainly, Thales' discoveries "were sufficient to pique humancuriosity and yield up the tiniest clue about the mysterious power ofelectricity."[2] With this beginning, scientists began studying theproperties of electricity, developing increasingly sophisticated andcomplicated theories and applications for this phenomenon by means of whichenergy can be generated. Westinghouse and Tesla won the bid for providingelectricity and lighting for the 1893 Chicago Columbian Exposition, thefirst all-electric fair in history. Tesla claimed that Edison had promised him a bonus ofhe could make the company's dynamos work more efficiently - but thenclaimed he'd only been joking after Tesla succeeded."[19] Edison's friendsclaimed that Tesla was more interested in using Edison's facilities todevelop his own ideas for machines based on electrical innovations. "The History of Electricity - a Timeline." 2 6- 2 9.Available at www.thehistoricalarchive.com /happenings/the-history-of-electricity...Created by staff members at an organization known as The HistoricalArchive, which provides online chronologies and commentaries on keyhistorical events and processes, this timeline is included as an appendixin the paper. But they'd only scratched the surface. 1 7.[32] David Bodanis, op. cit., p. utility companies that become involved in Third Worldpower projects "need to accept a longer payback period and lower internalrates of return to capture market share" while also "targeting crossovercountries that are poised to grow based on political stability, regulatoryenvironment, and economic infrastructure."[49] The Third World is an ideallocus for the continued development of projects employing electrical energyand it is highly likely that these projects will expand significantly overtime.Summary and Conclusions The relative brevity of this report prohibits doing full justice tothe subject of how electrification has positively affected the UnitedStates and in fact the entire world over the course of the past 1 or moreyears. "Third World Power Prospects." Energy Biz Magazine, September/October 2 5, pp. Underneath,there was something more."[14]The Emergence of Nikola Tesla Any number of journal articles, texts, and biographies have focusedon the amazing career of Nikola Tesla who is often called the forgottengenius and whose many inventions and related patents include the firstinduction motor, devices providing for wireless transmission of power, andpower generating stations.[15] Tesla was born in 1856 in the Serbianprovince of Lika, at the time a party of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.Dedicated to the study of math and science, he entered the AustrianPolytechnic School at Graz where he planned to study mechanical andelectrical engineering. cit., p. The articlereports on the direct current power generation system proposed by Edison aswell as the Tesla/Westinghouse alternating current system. However, as Bodanis puts it,"Edison and Bell and the other practical Victorian inventors had thoughtthey'd reached the deepest core of things, when they let out the ancientpower of electrons. 5.[26] Ibid., p. 6-7.[4] Ibid., p. The text isparticularly useful in identifying Tesla's inventions and his theories. Utilities are able to work with the WorldBank, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), and the InternationalUtility Efficiency Partnerships (IUEP).[46] Unfortunately, most companies engaged in the provision of electricalservices have focused their activities on the developed world. 18.[7] Ibid., p. Initially, he created a laboratory on LongIsland where he wanted to perfect his wireless transmission apparatus butrelocated to Colorado where he was able to conduct highly successfulexperiments that he hoped would lead to the achievement of his dream ofbroadcasting information and power to the far corners of the earth.[29]Interestingly, the experiments successfully performed in Colorado gaveTesla the confidence he needed to return to New York where he acceptedfinancial support from J.P. 36-41.This article by the editors and staff of the publishing company andmagazine provides an overview of the development of electricity services inthe United States in the early twentieth century. Water pumps, grain threshers, hay cutters,feed and bone grinders, hoists and elevators, huskers and shredders,presses and oat crusher - these were a few of the areas in which it wasrecognized that farmers would be able to benefit from cheap and easilyaccessible electric power. Appendix A The History of Electricity - A Timeline(Source: www.thehistoriclarchive.com, 2 9).1752 By tying a key onto a kite string during a storm, Ben Franklin ,proved that static electricity and lightning were the same. This articleexamines Tesla's vision for wireless transmission of power. This suggests that Tesla's work willcontinue to provide the basis of any number of new inventions just as wasthe case when Tesla sent the first wireless telegraph from Virginia toHawaii in 1915, telling reporters that "the transmission through the earthwith the proper apparatus is not more difficult than the sending of amessage on a wire strung across a room. cit., p. 1.[11] Ibid., pp. Tesla left Edison's company and went towork with George Westinghouse who also championed the AC approach devisedby Tesla and whose company would ultimately win what has been called the"War of the Currents" very early in the 2 th century.[21] This was due inlarge measure to the fact that the voltage of AC could readily betransformed, thus facilitating long-distance power transmission becauseelectricity sent at a high voltage and correspondingly low current sufferslimited loss in the wires. Invariably, the process by means of which theseelectrically powered devices became available varied from place to placebut it seems clear that as the twentieth century moved forward, both theurban industrial scene and the rural agrarian scene were being transformedby the ready availability of equipment powered by electricity.[4 ] Government in the United States was quick to recognize thesignificance of electrical power and the need to regulate public utilitiesthat were springing up across the country. A 287 Kilovolt power line stretched 266miles to Boulder (Hoover) Dam.Rural Electrification Act.1947 Transistor invented by scientists at Bell Telephone Laboratories.1953 First 345 Kilovolt transmission line.First nuclear power station ordered in England.1954 World's first nuclear power plant (Russia) started generatingelectricity.First high voltage direct current (HVDC) line (2 megawatts/19 Kilovolts,96 Km).Atomic Energy Act of 1954 allows private ownership of nuclear reactors.1957 Shippingport Reactor in Pennsylvania was the first nuclear power plantto provide electricity to customers in the U.S.-----------------------[1] Jill Jonnes, Empire of Light: Edison, Tesla, Westinghouse and the Raceto Electrify the World (New York: Random House, 2 3), p. After a supply of electricity was successfullyproduced, what was the best way to get that power to the individuals andcompanies who needed it?"[12] As the nineteenth century entered its final decades, Thomas Edisonalongside of Alexander Graham Bell had emerged as one of the most powerfulindustrial research chiefs. Ampere, and D.F.G. The article is useful in contributing to the thesisassertion that Tesla was a rival of Edison. These figures were ThomasEdison, George Westinghouse, and Nikola Tesla. His AC system including everything needed forelectricity production and use: generator, transformers, transmissionsystem, motor (used in appliances) and lights. His lightbulb burned out quickly.Charles Brush developed an arc lamp that could be powered by a generator.Thomas Edison founded the Edison Electric Light Co. Fisher.19 9 First pumped storage plant (Switzerland).1911 Electric air conditioning - W. Lee, "Nikola Tesla: Edison and Electricity; Legacy," Biography,2 6, p. He used the windmill to charge batteries in thecellar of his home in Cleveland, Ohio.1893 The Westinghouse Electric Company used an alternating current (AC)system to light the Chicago World's Fair.A 22 mile AC powerline was opened, sending electricity from FolsomPowerhouse in California to Sacramento.1896 An AC powerline that transmits power 2 miles from Niagara Falls toBuffalo, New York was opened.1897 Electron discovered by Joseph John Thomson.19 Highest voltage transmission line 6 Kilovolt.19 1 First power line between USA and Canada at Niagara Falls.19 2 5-Megawatt turbine for Fisk St. Empires of Light: Edison, Tesla, Westinghouse, and the Race to Electrify the World. It is quite clear that over the course ofthe past two centuries, electricity has become an increasingly significantsource of energy, mechanism enabling communications, and medium throughwhich many different activities in the industrial and manufacturing fieldare carried out.[3] According to David Bodanis, "the new wave ofelectrical technologies helped lead to the modern corporation and to votesfor women, to suburbs stretching far from cities, and tabloid newspapers,and, influenced by crisp telegraph messages, to a new Hemingway-styleprose."[4] These are issues that will be discussed in greater depth below.The Early History of Electricity Attached as Appendix A is a timeline titled "The History ofElectricity," developed by the editors at The Historical Archive.[5] Whilethis timeline begins in 1752 with American statesman and inventor BenFranklin's kite flying experiment, this is hardly the beginning ofexperimentation in the field of electricity. The central question addressed herein is how haselectrification in general and specifically the inventions of Nikola Tesla,shaped modern society from the twentieth century to the present time? cit., p. "The History of Electricity - A Timeline," op. 23-24.Fiore is a journalist and contributor to Electronic Design. (US), in New York City.He bought a number of patents related to electric lighting and beganexperiments to develop a practical, long-lasting light bulb.1879 After many experiments, Thomas Edison invented an incandescent lightbulb that could be used for about 4 hours without burning out. cit., p. Thearticle supports the thesis that Tesla was a major figure in thedevelopment of electricity.D'alto, Nick. 37.[38] Anonymous. Transmission of Power.

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