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Effects of Storage Temperature on the Anthocyanin Concnetration in Colored Potatoes

This paper looks at potatoes in general, colored (red, blue and purple potatoes in particular, anthocyanins, anthocyanin concentrations in some fruits and vegetables (strawberries, blueberries, carrots, potatoes, etc), the health benefits of anthocyanins, and the effects of storage temperature on anthocyanin concentration in colored fruits and vegetables and the colored potatoes.

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Potatoes Potatoes are nutritious and versatile providing an energy sourcefrom carbohydrates and providing protein and important vitamins B and C and minerals including potassium copper and manganese Potatoes-Why Eating the potatoes with the skin provides a substantial helping of fiber The average American consumes about pounds of potatoes per year andthey are consumed in higher quantities than any other vegetable makingthem the leading source of vitamin C in the American diet The onlydrawback is that most of them are not sold fresh

There is an increasing amount of evidence that the polyphenols inwine and juice-polyphenols also found in table grapes are largelyresponsible for the heart-protective benefits of these drinks (Grapes).Researchers at the University of Connecticut tested the componentpolyphenols of grapes to see if they were also cardioprotective. Two separate studies have shown that strawberries, in addition tobeing low in fat and calories, are naturally high in fiber, vitamin C,folate, potassium, and antioxidants, making their consumption advantageousto heart health, reducing the risks of certain types of cancer, improvingmemory, aiding in the management of rheumatoid arthritis, and giving thetotal body a boost (Fulgoni 2 ). Researchers at Oregon State University have created a purple-fruitedtomato that contains anthocyanins (Savonen). 2 3: 2 ."Grapes Protect the Heart Like Wine." Precinct Reporter 37(52) (2 2): 12.Heredia, J. Strawberries tend to decrease systolicblood pressure and may reduce the risk of heart disease associated withhigh blood pressure. Secondly, the anthocyanins protect the integrity of endothelial cellslining the blood vessel walls, which, when damaged, precipitateatherosclerosis (Sterling). Anthocyanins are the active compound in many folk remediessuch as bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus) which was used in the 12th centuryto induce menstruation and during World War II to improve British pilot'snight vision. F., & Aaby, K. G., & Cisneros-Zevallos. There was anincrease in antioxidant capacity of strawberries and raspberries duringstorage > degrees C which was accompanied by increases in anthocyanins instrawberries and increases in anthocyanins and total phenolics inraspberries. AirForce has shown that found elderberry extract reduced stress-relatedparameters such as blood glucose levels induced by stress. Anthocyanins protect against a variety of oxidants through a numberof mechanisms (Sterling). Thevarietal cultivars with the highest anti-oxidative capacity againstsuperoxide radicals, hydrogen peroxide and other oxidants are hull,thornless, and jewel raspberries, early black cranberries, and Elliotblueberries. Most Idaho potatoes are Russet Burbanks. Storage at 4degrees C caused only minor decreases in anthocyanins and total phenolics,but 5 percent decreases were seen in storage at 2 degrees C. These effects were attributed to the antioxidant effect of thegrapes. In a French study, people were tested for their ability toadjust to light and dark before and after taking bilberry anthocyanins.For several hours after supplementation, their eyesight improvedsignificantly. <http://www.wholehealthmd.com/reshelf/foods_view/1.1523.27 . 19 October 2 4. 19 October 2 4. | |Anthocyanins Anthocyanins are naturally occurring compounds that impart color tofruits, vegetables, and plants (Anthocyanins). Microwaving preserves the color. Red wine contains more than 15anthocyanin monomers, with varying proportions depending upon the type ofgrape from which it was produced, and which establish the color of thewine. B., Loaiza, J. Works Cited"Anthocyanins." 2 3. Eggplant contains a derivative of the anthocyanidin delphinidincalled nasunin, which interferes with the hydroxyl radical generatingsystem, which is a major source of oxidation in the body. Red cabbage anthocyanins protect animals againstoxidative stress from the toxin paraquat. 19 October 2 4. A study to investigate the effect of different storage temperatureson antioxidant levels and aroma compounds and the overall quality ofstrawberries found that antioxidant levels, anthocyanins and total phenoliccontent increased during storage at 1 or 5 degrees C, and strawberriesstored at 1 degrees C had the highest amount of both antioxidants andaroma compounds (Ayala-Zayala et al). Tomatoes are second only topotatoes in vegetable consumption in the world and so boosting theirnutritional composition would benefit a large number of people. A German study showed that diabetics givenanthocyanins had decreased abnormal collagen production. They areusually found in natural food stores. G., & Cisneros-Zevallos, L. The following diagram shows the chemicalstructure for red, violet and blue anthocyanin pigments: "[pic]Health Benefits of Anthocyanins Anthocyanins were eaten in large amounts by primitive humans, andhave some of the strongest physiological effects of any plant compounds(Sterling). Anthocyanins help maintain microcapillary integrity by stabilizingcapillary walls (Sterling). Anthocyanins also relax blood vessels: French researcherscontracted blood vessels with norepinephrine, and the anthocyanindelphinidin was able to relax them by 89 percent, which may explain itscardioprotective effects in red wine. The anthocyaninpigment is transmitted in tomatoes by a single dominant gene, Aft. Consuming half a cup of blueberries a dayimproves balance, coordination, and short-term memory, according toresearch studies. The term "Idaho potato"is a tradition, and they do not necessarily come from Idaho. Domestic varieties oftomatoes grown and consumed in the United States do not normally produceany anthocyanins. This demonstratesthat large improvements in juice quality are obtained by an early heatingstep during processing and cold storage of the juice. Americansconsumed 89 pounds of tomatoes per capita in 2 3. 19 October 2 4. A study at Tufts University found thatelderberry anthocyanins are quickly taken up into endothelial cellmembranes where they prevent oxidation by hydrogen peroxide and otheroxidants. Anthocyanins, such as cyanidin, provide a natural sunscreen forplants (Chemistry). Potatoes Potatoes are nutritious and versatile, providing an energy sourcefrom carbohydrates, and providing protein and important vitamins B6 and C,and minerals, including potassium, copper and manganese (Potatoes-Why).Eating the potatoes with the skin provides a substantial helping of fiber.The average American consumes about 126 pounds of potatoes per year, andthey are consumed in higher quantities than any other vegetable, makingthem the leading source of vitamin C in the American diet. 19 October 2 4. They havesturdy brown skins with a mesh-like netting on the surface, and starchyflesh. The trend in the food industry is to replace synthetic food additiveswith natural compounds, and anthocyanins are natural pigments with a highpotential to achieve this goal (Reyes, Loaiza and Cisneros-Zwvallos).Novel crops of purple or red potatoes are a good source of anthocyanins,and a high accumulation of these pigments would increase the nutritionaland commercial value of this product. The U.S. Each fruit and vegetable has its own anthocyanin profile, giving it adistinct 'fingerprint' (Anthocyanins). A recent Japanese study found that people taking 5 mg ofblack currant anthocyanins adapted better to the dark and had less eyefatigue than controls. However, the Texas All Blue variety showed 34 to 53percent increases when treated with ethylene and 85 percent to 96 percentincreases when treated with methyl jasmonate. They are also being investigated for the ability to inhibit low-densitylipoproteins (LDL - bad cholesterol), prevent blood clotting, and defendcells against carcinogens. "Research adds health benefits to tomatoes." 2 4. The studyshowed a differential effect of the treatments on different phytochemicals,with minimal effect on anthocyanins. Researchers are currently trying to determine the specificbioactivity of each of the anthocyanins in relation to human health.Variations in pigments are affected by the degree of acidity or alkalinity,and intense light and low temperature favor the development of anthocyaninpigments. Antioxidant activity of juice increased similarly. However, ascorbatemakes only a small contribution to the antioxidant capacity of thesefruits. The researchers succeeded in producing the purpletomatoes by crossing a domestic tomato plant with a genetic stock of tomatothat included a gene incorporated from a wild relative with anthocyanin-containing fruit and the Aft gene. However, the study showed that All Blue varieties of potatoeshave a mechanism for synthesis of anthocyanins. <http://chemistry.about.com/library/weekly/aa 826 2a.htm>Fulgoni, V. LongRussets are typified by the Russet Burbank, the favorite baking potato.They are large, ovoid potatoes and can weigh over a pound each. The onlydrawback is that most of them are not sold fresh, and are consumed invarious convenience forms (french fries, hash browns, etc.) that increasetheir fat and sodium content. <http://www.innovations-report.de/html>Skrede, G., Hoines, R. Titratable acidity, total soluble solids and pHwere evaluated as quality parameters. Bilberry in trace amountseffectively protects against LDL oxidation in studies in the laboratory. Close to 3 anthocyanins have beendiscovered to date. Anthocyanins are largelyresponsible for the red coloring in buds and young shoots, and the purpleand red colors in autumn leaves. Yukon Gold is a variety of yellow-flesh potato popular in Europe andstill not grown in large quantities in the United States (Potatoes). "Antioxidant capacity, vitamin C, phenolics, and anthocyanins after fresh storage of small fruits." Agriculture and Food Chemistry 47(11) (1999): 38-44."Potatoes." 2 4. Results showed that the amount of anthocyanins in Texas varietiessuch as RC2 3-2, Penn Purple and NDC-4 89-4 remained the same or decreasedwith the presence of methyl jasmonate or ethylene (Reyes, Loaiza andCisneros-Zevallos). <http://ift.confex.com/ift/2 1/techprogram/paper_92 3.htm>Kalt, W., Forney, C. 19 October, 2 4. <http://www.newhope.com/nutritionsciencenews/NSN_backs/Dec_ 1/antho.cfm>"The Benefits of Blueberries." Medical Update 24(11) (2 1): 4.-----------------------[pic] Carrots contain carotenes and phenolics, such as isocoumarins andanthocyanins, which influence their flavor and color (Heredia, Loaiza andCisneros-Zevallos). Long whites are most often the White Rose variety of all-purposepotato (Potatoes-Why). The maroon carrots were treated with air, 1 -ppm ethylene, andmethyl jasmonate (headspace vapors), and stored at , 1 , and 2 degrees C,and alternating temperature conditions (transferring back and forth between degrees C and 2 degrees C) (Heredia, Loaiza, and Cisneros-Zevallos).Total carotenes, phenolics, anthocyanins and isocoumarins were evaluatedspectrophotometrically. These phenolic compounds protect the crop fromoxidative deterioration and increase the health and nutritional propertiesof human diets in which they are included. They have a delicate, sweet flavor. Compared with peoplewho do not eat strawberries, those that do eat them have higher bloodfolate levels and lower blood homocysteine levels and lower blood pressure. True new potatoes are notnecessarily small and round, but all have a feathery skin which can bebrushed off with the fingers. However, the overall quality ofstrawberries was better when they were stored at degrees C. <http://ift.confex.com/ift/2 1/techprogram/paper_7662.htm>Savonen, C. Theyfound that table grapes from California protected the heart and bloodvessels against oxidative tissue damage the same way red wine did. "Blood pressure; Daily serving of strawberries can decrease systolic blood pressure." Heart Disease Weekly 3 Nov. Ascorbate content differs morethan five-fold among these fruits, with strawberries and raspberries havingalmost four times the ascorbate content of blueberries. Combining ethylenetreatment and alternating temperatures resulted in the highest isocoumarinaccumulation (28 percent). The researchers tested the grapesin a model which mimics what happens during a heart attack - deprivationand re-introduction of blood to the heart and blood vessels can lead toinflammation, blood loss and permanent tissue damage due partly to adramatic rise in free radicals which overwhelm the heart's normalantioxidant mechanisms. Round whites are most often the Katahdin variety, andhave a light tan skin, are smaller than the long whites, and have anaverage weight of one-third of a pound. Methyl jasmonate showed an increase incarotenes (3 percent), anthocyanins (6 percent) and acidity (68 percent)only at the alternating temperatures, and did not induce any isocoumarinaccumulation at any temperature. Anthocyanin levels from juice from bilberry mashheated to 43, 6 , 75 and 96 degrees C were 166, 192, 244 and 297 mg/1 grespectively. Potatoes can be divided into waxy, starchy, and all-purpose varieties(Potatoes-Why). 19 October 2 4.<http://www.ars.usda.gov/research/publications/Publications.htm>"Chemistry of Autumn Leaf Color." 2 4. "Got anthocyanins?" Nutrition Science News December 2 1. They have been found in studies to have the strongest anti-oxidizing power of over 15 flavinoids tested. Ethylene induced accumulation of carotenes (25 percent at degreesC) and caused an increase in isocoumarins (154-28 percent) at all studiedtemperatures (Heredia, Loaiza and Cisneros-Zevallos). "Effect of storage temperature on antioxidant capacity and aroma compounds in strawberry fruit." 8 March 2 4. All Blue cultivar varietyfrom Colorado did not show a significant accumulation of anthocyanins whentreated with ethylene. Texas samples had a low initial amount ofanthocyanins compared to those from Colorado, and this may be why theycould respond better. The waxy kind are better for boiling, the starchy kind arebest for baking, and the all-purpose ones fall somewhere in between thesetwo types. Department ofAgriculture recently tested the ability of berries of different varietiesto protect against oxidative damage, and in general it was found that blackberries have the highest antioxidant capacity of any fruit. Research was done to determineif physiological stresses such as application of ethylene, methyl jasmonateand storage temperature would induce phenolic compound synthesis and/oraccumulation in maroon carrots. A study by Tufts University/USDA Center for Aging found thatblueberries are the best fruits and vegetables to consume in terms of theirantioxidant capacity (The Benefits). F., Loaiza, J. The round reds are smooth-skinned, usually Red LaSoda and RedPontiac, and are commonly sold new. Bilberries are one of the richest sources of anthocyanins and otherpolyphenols (Skrede, Hoines and Aaby). Antioxidantactivity remained stable or increased during storage. 19 October 2 4. Bilberry has beenshown in French studies to help maintain normal microcirculation in ananimal model of diabetes. New potatoes have a high moisture and sugarcontent and cook quickly. Total anthocyaninsand phenolics were determined spectrophotometrically. The most common potato varieties grown in the United States areRussets, long whites, round reds, and round whites (Potatoes-Why). Supplementation with anthocyanins effectively prevents inflammationand subsequent blood vessel damage (Sterling). Monomeric anthocyanins, total phenolics and antioxidant activity weredetermined in berries and in juice during storage at , 6, 12 and 38 weeks(Skrede, Hoes and Aaby). Grape polyphenolsinactivated free radicals and reduced the production of malondialdehyde, atypical product of oxidation, by half. The anthocyanins in blueberries arebelieved to fight off damaging free radicals from smog, cigarette smoke andother environmental toxins which cause or accelerate some of the problemsassociated with aging. Folate reduces homocysteine levels: homocysteine isan amino acid which blocks arteries when at high levels in the blood.Strawberries are high in antioxidants such as ellagic acid, and inanthocyanins, which give the fruit its red pigment. Maturepotatoes have thick skins, and may have been kept in cold storage for up toa year before being sold. The Colorado variety may have already been atsaturation. <http://www.wholefoods.com/healthinfo/wholehealth/anthocyanins>Ayala-Zayala, J., Wang, S., Wang, C-Y, Gonzalez-Aguilar, G., & Montoya, L. 26 June 2 1. Totalphenolics in juice increased from 198 to 325 mg/1 g by increasedheating. The blueberries appear to have this effect no matterwhether they are eaten fresh, frozen, dried, as pie fillings, juices orconcentrates. Anthocyanins link with sugar molecules, and besideschlorophyll, are probably the most important group of visible plantpigments. F., Martin, A., & Prior, R. "Effect of ethylene, methyl jasmonate and temperature on the synthesis of anthocyanins in colored-flesh potatoes." 27 June 2 1. Anthocyanins belong to the group of plant compoundsknown as flavinoids, a subclass of plant polyphenols that may haveantioxidant abilities that are being studied as possible anticancer agents. Bilberry has traditionally been used for ulcers and in a study, 1 men who took 1,2 mg anthocyanins for 1 days increased their gastricjuice and mucus secretions, but not their gastric acid production(Sterling). The result was a domestic-type tomatofruit containing the purple pigment anthocyanin gene. Pasteurized, single-strength juice was stored at 4 or 2 degrees C for 38 weeks. Cyanidins, found in most fruitanthocyanins, function as a potent antioxidant. A study wascarried out to investigate the heating of bilberry mush prior todepectination on retention of anthocyanins, total phenolics and antioxidantactivity when processing bilberry juice under industrial-like conditions.The stability of these compounds during storage was also investigated.Frozen Norwegian bilberries were thawed, cut, heated to 43, 6 , 75 or 96degrees C and cooled to 43 degrees C. "Effects of processing on anthocyanins, total phenolics and antioxidant activity of bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus L.) juice during storage." 2 1 IFT Annual Meeting. L. The antioxidant capacity of blueberries is about three-fold higherthan either strawberries or raspberries. Blueand purple potatoes originated in South America and are most commonlyavailable in the fall, though not yet grown in large quantities in theUnited States. The anti-inflammatoryeffects of anthocyanins has been shown to help dampen allergic reactions.By preventing tyrosine nitration, the anthocyanin pelargonidin may helpprotect against neurological diseases, and blueberry supplements have beenfound to reverse age-related neurological deficits in animals.Anthocyanins are potent atherosclerosis fighters by first preventing a keystep in atherogenesis: the oxidation of LDL. Potatoes are also differentiated according to age, with newpotatoes being sold soon after being harvested. During juice processing,antioxidants are subject to degradation by endogenous enzymes. <http://ift.confex.com/ift/2 1/technprogram/paper_8512.htm>Sterling, M. .html>Reyes, L. Why Eat It?" 2 . Cyanidin is four times more powerful as an antioxidant thanvitamin E. For this reason, studies wereundertaken to determine if abiotic stresses could increase the accumulationof anthocyanins and phenolic compounds in colored potatoes. Heat- and light-sensitive anthocyanins can beeasily destroyed during the processing of fruits and vegetables, and in thepresence of a high sugar concentration, anthocyanins are rapidly destroyed. Seebelow:Effect of Cold Storage on Anthocyanins Fresh strawberries (Fragaria x ananassa Duch.), raspberries (Rubusidaeus Michx.), highbush blueberries (Vaccinium corymbosum L.) and lowbushblueberries (Vaccinium angustifolium Aiton) were stored at , 1 , 2 and 3 degrees C for up to 8 days to look at the effects of storage temperature onwhole fruit antioxidant capacity and total phenolics, anthocyanin andascorbate content (Kalt, Forney, Martin and Prior 38-44). Frozen berries contained 416 mg anthocyanins/1 g. 19 October 2 4. (2 3). "Phenolic synthesis in maroon carrots treated with ethylene and methyl jasmonate stored at different temperatures." 25 June 2 1. Recently, grape juice has been shown to reduce the susceptibilityof LDL to oxidation and blood's tendency to form clots. In all treatments, total phenolicsincreased in relation to initial day (27 percent to 57 percent). On average, anthocyanin is red in acid, violet in neutral, andblue in alkaline solutions. Cyanidins protect cellmembrane lipids from oxidation by a variety of harmful substances in animalstudies. The newly harvested long whites are thin-skinnedand waxy, and the mature ones are starchy and weigh an average of half apound. The word is derived fromthe Greek words for 'blue' and 'plant' and anthocyanins are the pigmentsthat make blueberries blue, stawberries red, red potatoes red, and they arethought to play a major role in the high antioxidant activity levels foundin red and blue fruits and vegetables. Bothcontain the same polyphenol disease-fighting phytonutrients such asanthocyanins, resveratrol, catechins and quercetin. S. They have a subtle nutty flavor and flesh that ranges fromdark blue or lavender to white. <http://www.truestarhealth.com/Notes/189 5.html>"Potatoes. Differentvarieties of the same species have differing amounts of anthocyanins. Depectination was performed withcommercial enzymes before the mash was pressed. Because the molecular structure of anthocyaninscontains a sugar molecule, production of this class of pigments isdependent on the availability of carbohydrates within the plant.Anthocyanin color changes with the pH of the soil, and anthocyaninproduction requires light. Retinopathy in diabetics, a common cause ofblindness, renders capillaries more permeable to large protein molecules,and anthocyanins prevent this leakage and prevent abnormal proteinproliferation. Astudy in Europe showed that 55 women with intrauterine growth retardation(which manifests as a decreased rate of fetal growth) who took anthocyaninsexperienced decreased oxidated LDL levels, while LDL levels rose in thecontrol group. California table grapes consumption improved blood flow and heartpumping capacity, and reduced the area of tissue death after a heart attack(Grapes). They may strengthen eyesight and help preventurinary tract infections. 19 October 2 4. Strawberries, raspberries and blueberries vary markedly in theirtotal antioxidant capacity, which is strongly correlated with their contentof total phenolics and anthocyanins (Kalt, Forney, Martin and Prior 4638-4644). An Austrian pilot study in conjunction with the U. Ithas a dense, creamy texture and is good served as a mashed potato. Four varietiesof purple and red potatoes were stored in 4-liter jars for three weeks andsubjected to 1 -ppm ethylene, methyl jasmonate (head air pressure) andair at two temperatures - 2 degrees C and 2 degrees C. When more mature, they are waxy andgood for boiling.

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