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DYSLEXIA.

Problems of definition of this learning disability, cause, research, theories, manifestations, educational aspects.

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Abstract
Learning disabilities, or LDs, are a range of learning difficulties, which may or may not have a clear physiological origin. As a result, most attempts at definition have been descriptive of the outward manifestations of the disabilities. Future research in the area of brain asymmetry may prove useful in pinpointing the physiological origin of LD. Even dyslexia, however, does not necessarily indicate a brain lesion as was once thought; perhaps brain asymmetry will help us to look in other areas.
The social significance of LD and the special educational needs of these students are surveyed. The most prevalent recent models of LD learning have employed an information processing metaphor. The LD student processes perhaps smaller chunks of

A. The most prevalent recent models of LDlearning have employed an information processing metaphor. 7). Goldsmith-Phillips (1994) cites one of the most exclusionarydefinitions found in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of MentalDisorders, third edition--revised (American Psychiatric Association, 1987),which states that the essential feature of dyslexia is marked impairment inthe development of word recognition skills and reading comprehension thatis not explainable by Mental Retardation or inadequate schooling and thatis not due to a hearing defect or a neurologic disorder" (p. The child is perceived as a behavior problem,or merely not working up to potential (p. We have done a better job of stating what dyslexia is not,than we have of defining the LD.Most federal and state laws do not specify the characteristics foridentifying persons with dyslexia. New York. Howard S. Boston. Handbook of Learning Disabilities, Volume I.Boston. Cerebral Cortex: Normal and Altered States of Function (pp. The LD studentprocesses perhaps smaller chunks of information at a time than the non-LDstudent. In spite of the recent physiological findings mentioned above, it isclear that single-syndrome theories cannot adequately explain the nature ofLD. Adapting Early Childhood Curricula for Children with Special Needs, 3rd ed. Both as a concept and as a diagnostic classification, LD has beenused indiscriminately. Sixty years ago, researchers were looking tothe brain for abnormalities that might explain developmental dyslexia, animpairment in the ability to read and write. Additionally, it will be necessary to teach the LD student mnemonicdevices that will make memory association tasks easier. Because the LD person is an underachiever by nature, lack ofself-esteem is a major problem. Learning disabled students display an extensive catalog of deficits.Kavale (1987) tells us that research over the past 2 years has revealedthat the manifestations of LD are many and varied (p. LearningDisabilities: New Directions for Assessment andIntervention. Macmillan Publishing Company.Galaburda, A. Research in brain abnormalities has been slow to demonstrate aphysiological basis for LD. Little, Brown and Company.Klivington, K. The value in Adelman's construct lies in its ability to differentiatea learning problem (based on outside, environmental factors) from alearning disability (based on internal, perhaps neurobiological factors).Adelman's view is useful in that it recognizes that the cause of LD may bedue to a combination of internal and external factors. As a result, mostattempts at definition have been descriptive of the outward manifestationsof the disabilities. Using a postmortem exam of a young man with developmentaldyslexia, these researchers found evidence of disturbance in the prenataldevelopment of the cerebral cortex, especially in the parts of the lefthemisphere that are associated with language processes. Social and emotional problems have been observed more frequentlyamong LD children and adolescents than in the general population of thesame age. More recent studies by Galaburda have shown that deviations fromnormal brain asymmetries occur in dyslexic persons, and these deviationsare in language processing centers (Galaburda et al., 1991). MIT Press.----------------------- 1 8 Semrud-Clikeman and Hynd (1994) have noted that all brains contain asymmetricareas--it is the degree of asymmetry which may lead to the source ofdyslexia. We have looked at LD fromphysiological, educational, and social viewpoints, only to discover thatall three areas help explain the cause and manifestations of the disorder.Some individuals with developmental dyslexia may have identifiable brainabnormalities, but many, if not most, dyslexics do not. For example, subaverage intelligence, severeemotional disturbance, visual or auditory problems, or lack of opportunityto learn to read disqualify a reading-disabled person from the dyslexialabel. Peters & E. G. It is interesting to notehow far we have come in our social understanding of LD. Because of early findings that speech, vision, and auditorycomprehension were localizable to various centers of the brain, it wasthought that reading, arithmetic, writing, and other cognitive skills wouldlikewise be localizable. As Kenneth Klivingtonrecounts in his The Science of Mind, anatomical evidence was notforthcoming, and neurological theories were gradually abandoned (1989, p.212). C., and J. Thurman and Widerstrom (199 ) tell us thatthe three processes of attention, perception, and memory are dependent:individuals cannot pay attention if they are not able to perceive incomingstimuli; they cannot store information that they do not perceive; theycannot further develop perceptual skills of recognition and interpretationif they do not have information stored in memory, and so on (cited in Cook,1992, p. Parents, too, may feel guilty that theirchild is not "normal." In addition, parents of a chronically learningdisabled child may find themselves in a painfully conflicting situation.Living with their child on a daily basis, they are usually the first tobecome aware of subtle and largely invisible disabilities; even so, theymay deny those disabilities out of embarrassment or misunderstanding.Gaddes (1994) observes that because the child appears normal, we expectnormal academic performance. Goldsmith-Phillips (1994) notes thatofficial definitions are largely exclusionary, stating all the conditionswhich must be ruled out or excluded before a reading problem can beidentified as dyslexia. Adelman (1994) conceptualizesLD on a continuum from type I learning problems (caused by factors in theenvironment) to type III learning problems (caused by factors in theperson, or actual learning disabilities). 45 ). E., Metcalf, R., & Robbins, J. London. Managing that frustration becomes a social andeducational task that trained individuals should be able to handle. 271). Even dyslexia,however, does not necessarily indicate a brain lesion as was once thought;perhaps brain asymmetry will help us to look in other areas. Because of inconsistencies in research data to date, it ispremature to say that all dyslexic persons have brain abnormalities;however, Semrud-Clikeman and Hynd (1994) consider brain asymmetries to beimportant to investigate for possible differences in brain morphology inpersons with dyslexia compared to normal readers (cited in Jordan &Goldsmith-Phillips, p. Subsequent research focused on educational theory aimed atcorrecting the outward manifestations of dyslexia: the written languagedeficits. (1991). (1994). Kamhi(1992) states that although this definition incorporates a reference toreading skills, it still leaves researchers and educators in thefrustrating situation of being required to diagnose and treat a disorderwithout clearly specified symptoms (cited in Jordan and Goldsmith-Phillips,1994, p. The informationprocessing metaphor is useful in helping teachers to understand the mind,and the LD mind, in particular. (1992). Topical brain scans for asymmetry. In addition, all dyslexics canbenefits from educational remediation aimed at making learning taskseasier. We are still investigating probable causes of dyslexia, and we arestill grappling with a definition for the outward manifestations of theimpairment. 44). It appears that the most practical of remedies--practice--willbe the most effective approach. Klivington goes on to summarize the 1979 findings of Galaburdaand Kemper. We will attempt to identify a well-known LD, dyslexia, aswell as overview the social implications for those individuals who mustovercome it. LD may contribute to other behavior termed "abnormal" as a resultof the disability. (1989). What remediation strategies have been of practical value in theclassroom? The Science of Mind. However, this reasoning was later empiricallydiscounted as being too simplistic (Semrud-Clikeman & Hynd, cited in Jordan& Goldsmith-Phillips, 1994, p. Goldsmith-Phillips, ed. Incentives havealso helped to alleviate the stress of frustration.Conclusion Although we have made advances in our understanding of LD in recentyears, the field is still quite young. All dyslexics havesocial problems which must be addressed. It is important to note that developmental dyslexia can be traced toa physiological origin, but not all dyslexics have any physical signs ofimpairment. H. Parents, teachers, and researchers must find ways to improvethe self-images of LD individuals at the same time that we help them adaptto their uniqueness. A. 449). Adelman (1994) points out that suchlabels both reflect and perpetuate psychological and sociopoliticaltendencies to view most learning problems as if their cause were due tosome form of internal pathology (cited in Jordan and Goldsmith-Phillips, p.2). Jones (Eds.). Learning Disabilities and Brain Function: ANeuropsychological Approach, 3rd ed. For the most part, we will see that LD appear as symptoms for which wecan find no physical cause, or, "internal pathology." In view of the fact that we will have to treat the symptoms, ratherthan the causes of LD, a practical approach to remediation will provide themost productive course in helping LD individuals adapt to theirdisadvantage.The Elusive Nature of LD We may be looking in the wrong places in our attempts to find the"primary locus of cause" of a particular LD. It soon becameapparent that emotional and social behavior were integral parts of allforms of learning, and the NJCLD's new definition (1987) allowed that LDmay occur concomitantly with serious emotional disturbance (Gaddes, 1994,p. Kavale (1987) also notes that,based on an hypothesis regarding the nature of LD, theories linking LD toperceptual, linguistic, attention, and memory deficits were conceptualizedbut generally failed to provide a broad perspective about LD (p. (1994). Dyslexia becomes the diagnosis for a "leftover' group of childrenand adults whose reading disability resists both explanation andremediation (p. The social significance of LD and the special educational needs ofthese students are surveyed. 271). Frustration on the part of the learner will mayundesirable behavior. Allyn and Bacon.Kavale, K. For this reason, the LD student should be taught mnemonic devicesto make memorization easier.Introduction Twenty years after its inception, the learning disabilities (LD)field is still refining a definition for "learning disability." The lackof a precise definition for "LD" is a problem for researchers, educators,and parents. This transactionalconception of the cause of LD is similar to the interactionist viewpoint ofmany psychologists who believe that we are the products of heredity andenvironment. 48). (1987). 263-277). Problems caused equally by boththe environment and the person would be midway across the continuum (citedin Jordan and Goldsmith-Phillips, p. 43). Plenum Press.Gaddes, W. As Gaddes (1994)points out, the first definition of learning disabilities formulated in theUnited States by the National Advisory Commission on Handicapped Children(1968) excluded children with emotional disturbance. Future research in the area of brain asymmetry mayprove useful in pinpointing the physiological origin of LD. 87). New York. Using CAT-scans and magnetic resonance imaging techniques, theyhave noted that the magnitudes of asymmetry of the angular gyrus and leftplana areas of the brain are highly correlated with language processingskill. In A. Once we have realized the multifaceted nature of LD, we can manage totreat it with the expertise of trained educators. New York. Springer- Verlag.Jordan, N. Researchers thought thatareas in the human brain believed to impair reading and writing wereimproperly developed in the dyslexic individual. M., Abramson, T., & Smith, J. Abstract Learning disabilities, or LDs, are a range of learning difficulties,which may or may not have a clear physiological origin. ReferencesCook, R. 87). Although LDhas been viewed primarily as a problem of underachievement, historicallyconcern has focused on problems associated with oral language, writtenlanguage, and perceptual-motor responses. Therefore, thepresence of language disorders could, in fact, be linked to developmentalbrain abnormalities and to other medical conditions (Klivington, 1989, p.212). The LD student should be given informationin easy-to-process chunks, accompanied by frequent repetitions of practice. As a result, almost any individual with a commonlearning problem stands a good chance of being diagnosed as having alearning disability, a reading disability, dyslexia, attention deficitdisorder (ADD), attention deficit disorder with hyperactivity (ADHD), orsomething of the sort. 262).

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