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ADOLESCENT DEPRESSION AND SUICIDE.

Summarizes possible causes of depression and teenage suicide. Risk factors identified by psychologists and clinicians. External contributors (gender, birth order, substnce abuse, social pressure, unstable families, conduct disorder). Internal contributors (hopelessness, coping skill deficits). Negative outcomes.; academic problems. Need to develop prevention tools. Paper contains many quotations.

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INTRODUCTION
Depression has become a multi-million dollar industry. Mainstream daily life offers many stressful life events that are compounded by external stimuli such as the media. Too often, adolescents have received blame for acting out rather than receiving focus for reacting within. “The self is a multi-faceted dynamic entity that is involved in the construction of meaning, mediating and regulating emotions and motivating actions” (Orbach, Mikulincer, Stein, & Cohen, 1998, p. 435). With teenage suicide purported to be epidemic and rising, it is essential that the adolescent “self” be examined so preventive tools may be exacted and implemented. “Adolescent depression has also been shown to predict a variety of negative outcomes, including: academic problems, marital difficulties, delinquency,

3 4) and "substance abuse" (Lewinsohn et al, 1994, p. If programs were to be focused oneliminating or minimalizing the degree of hopelessness felt by adolescents,society might come a long way in eradicating the epidemic of teen suicide.It was thought-provoking to note that being female weighed heavy onpredisposing a teen to depression and suicide. 1 7, No. 2, 3 2-315. 3 4). 435). 249). 1 3, No. (August 1989). 25 ). "Cigarette smoking" (Kandel & Davies, 1986; cited in Lewinsohn et al,1994, p. Conduct disorder. Family. Personal Fable. Kashani, Javad H., Reid, John C., Rosenberg, Tomas K. With teenage suicidepurported to be epidemic and rising, it is essential that the adolescent"self" be examined so preventive tools may be exacted and implemented."Adolescent depression has also been shown to predict a variety of negativeoutcomes, including: academic problems, marital difficulties, delinquency,unemployment, drug involvement, medical hospitalization, car accidents,arrest and criminal conviction" (Lewinsohn, Roberts, Seeley, Rohde,Gotlib, & Hops, 1994, p. "Failure to adopt such a fable or belief about oneself may increaseone's susceptibility to suicidal contemplations" (Cole, 1989, p. Research indicates that there is a "close relationbetween suicide and conduct disorder, especially for young men" (Bettes &Walker, 1986; Pfeffer, Plutchik, & Mizurchi, 1983; cited in Cole, 1989, p.249 ).INTERNAL ACTUALIZATIONS Hopelessness and pessimism. 25 ).CONCLUSION Self-vulnerability and fragility can be related to some aspects of cognitive and emotional deficient functioning of the suicidal person, including hopelessness, difficulties in problem solving, perceiving problems as being unsolvable, a sense of worthlessness and an inability to enjoy life (Orbach, 1997; cited in Orbach, et al, 1998, p. 31 ) and"problematic interpersonal behaviors" (Gotlib, 1982; cited in Lewinsohn etal, 1994, p. It appears the largest singlesegment of at-risk youth are adolescent females between the ages of 13 and17. "Theself is a multi-faceted dynamic entity that is involved in the constructionof meaning, mediating and regulating emotions and motivating actions"(Orbach, Mikulincer, Stein, & Cohen, 1998, p. "Coping skill deficits could affect copingbeliefs, which may (more directly) predispose a person to contemplatesuicide" (Cole, 1989, p. "Defined as a negative expectation towardthe future, hopelessness as a symptom is significant both as a component ofdepression an as it relates to completed suicide" (Kashani, Reid &Rosenberg, 1989, p. Psychosocial Risk Factors for Depression. "Birth order" (Lewinsohn et al, 1994, p. 3, 435-439. Vol 98, No. Vol. 4, 496-499. Unpopular behaviors areoften inhibited" (Cole, 1989, p. Vol. 3, 248-255. The risks fell into two categories: external contributorsand internal actualizations.EXTERNAL CONTRIBUTORS External characteristics that appear to predispose an adolescent tosuicidal behaviors consist of the following: "Being female" (Block, Gjerde, & Block, 1991; Lewinsohn, et al, 1993;cited in Lewinsohn et al, 1994, p. Vol. Beginning in the 198 's, psychologists and clinicians intensifiedtheir research narrowing down the risk factors to the psychopathology ofadolescent suicide and focusing on potential prevention tools based onthose findings. Adolescent Psychopathology: II. As this is the largestpotential segment of the future working population and with the changingroles of gender and the family, it should become a priority to focus onthis group and initiate programs aimed at discovering why this populationsegment feels so hopeless and why they are unable to cope as well as boys.After all, an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure. Orbach, Israel, Mikulincer, Mario, Stein, Daniel, Cohen, Orit. Mainstreamdaily life offers many stressful life events that are compounded byexternal stimuli such as the media. (May 1994). 3 4), including "conflict with parents and interpersonalattractiveness and early death of a parent" (Lewinsohn et al, 1994, p.3 4). Given thepredilection that teenage depression predicts a variety of negativefuturistic outcomes, this would be an investment worthy of the undertaking. It suggests possible avenues for suicide prevention efforts: problem-solving skills training, coupled with self-efficacy enhancement, may prove to be useful in adolescent populations at risk for suicide (Cole, 1989, p. Fear of social disapproval (Berndt, 1979; cited inCole, 1989) and "conformity to peers is high. Too often, adolescents have receivedblame for acting out rather than receiving focus for reacting within. Social Pressure. Psychopathology of Adolescent Suicde Hopelessness, Coping Beliefs, and Depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology. Cole contrasts this with Whereas Beck's (1963, 1967) theory points to hopelessness as a central factor in the psychopathology of suicide, the current data suggest that in adolescence, a failure to believe in one's own self-efficacy and ability to cope may be more critical, at least for boys. 249). Problem-solving skills. Journal of Abnormal Psychology. Lewisohn, Peter M., Roberts, Robert E., Seeley, John R., Rohde, Paul, Gotlib, Ian H., Hops, Hyman. 57, No. "Knowledge regarding the risk factors fordepression in adolescence would seem to be especially important given thatearly onset depression appears to represent a more serious form of thedisorder" (Asarnow et al; Bland, Newman, & Orn, 1986; cited in Lewinsohn,et al, 1994, p. Levels of Hopelessness in Children and Adolescents, A Developmental Perspective. Journal of Abnormal Psychology. (August 1998). 3 3). It appears fromresearch that those who were the youngest lacked a pre-disposition todepression. "Broken families" (Lewinsohn et al, 1994, p. Journal of Counseling and Clinical Psychology. References Cole, David A. It seems from research that the overwhelming central factor inadolescent suicide was hopelessness. (August 1989). 31 ). 44 )."Given the importance of the school environment to future accomplishmentsand advances in life, further research on the mechanism linkinghopelessness and school problems is a priority" (Kashani, et al, 1989, p.498). 3 3). 496). Self-Representation of Suicidal Adolescents. "A common belief among adolescents is that they arespecial, unusually able and fortunate individuals, and that accidents orcatastrophes that could befall others will not happen to them" (Elkind,1967, 1985; Lapsley, 1985; Lapsley & Murphy, 1985; cited in Cole, 1989, p.25 ). 3 4). INTRODUCTION Depression has become a multi-million dollar industry.

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