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A History of the Cherokee

Discusses the history of the Cherokee Nation from their creation story to the present. How the Cherokees lost their independence due largely to land-hungry Europeans. The Cherokee return today to a greater degree of sovereignty.

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The Resurgence of the Cherokee NationIntroduction Long before Europeans arrived in what would become North America native peoples including the Cherokee nation of the southern Appalachianregion had created complex social systems and lifestyles that wouldultimately be challenged and in many instances virtually destroyed by theinflux of land-hungry Europeans i At issue in this brief report is ananalysis of the development of the Cherokee Nation from their creationstory to the present During this period the Cherokees enjoyedindependence lost it struggled to regain some

Conley, op. Rogers becomes last elected chief for 69 years.[pic]19 5 - Land allotment begins after official roll taken of Cherokees.[pic]19 7 - Oklahoma statehood combines Indian and Oklahoma Territories anddissolves tribal government.[pic]1917 - William C. Think Quest. Additionally, this analystnotes that the Cherokee, like most Native American peoples, did notunderstand property rights and ownership of land in the same manner as didthe Europeans. Theywere denied the right to vote, children were separated from their familiesand were sent to federally operated boarding schools where they wereforbidden from speaking the Cherokee language, and Cherokee self-governmentwas subject to oversight by the Bureau of Indian Affairs.[xiv] In the second half of the twentieth century, many Cherokees began toorganize resistance to the patriarchal and oppressive policies of thefederal government. John Ross dies.[pic]1887 - General Allotment Act passed; requires individual ownership oflands once held in common by Indian tribes.[pic]1889 - Unassigned lands in Indian Territory opened by white settlersknown as "boomers."[pic]189 - Oklahoma Territory organized out of western half of IndianTerritory.[pic]1893 - Cherokee Outlet opened for white settlers.Dawes Commissionarrives.[pic]1898 - Curtis Act passed abolishing tribal courts.[pic]19 3 - W.C. Includes a call for the U.S. They have had some success in thistask, but could certainly benefit from additional opportunities to morecompletely assert their right to function as an autonomous nation within anation. 1-3.Nash, Gary B. 3-4.[x] Robert J. It is quiteclear that like many other Native American peoples, the Cherokees havestruggled to return to a state similar to that they enjoyed prior to thearrival of Europeans in North America. CNHS opensAncient Village, 1967; Trail of Tears Drama, 1969, and museum, 1975.[pic]1967 - Cherokee Foundation formed to purchase land on which the tribalcomplex now sits.[pic]197 - U.S. 1-2.Available at www.ucan-online.org.[xiv]Dave Luebben, "Ten Thousand Years of Cherokee History." ChristianScience Monitor, July 13, 2 5, 87(15 ), p. New York: Hill and Wang, 1983,pp. This led invariably in the case of theCherokee to lawsuits and armed conflict between Cherokee groups and theU.S. Female seminary isthe first secondary school for girls west of the Mississippi.[pic]1859 - Original Keetoowah Society organized to maintain traditions andfight slavery.[pic]186 - Tension mounts between Union Cherokees and ConfederateCherokees. "Introduction." Voices from the Trail of Tears. "Debating Identity, Sovereignty, and Civilization." Journal of the Early Republic, Spring 2 , 26(1), pp. Available athtt://library.thinkquest.org/18757/text/Cherokee.htm.[iii] David J. However, by 1828, the Cherokee were"staunch allies of the Americans, having assisted them in theirnegotiations with the Seminoles and other tribes and having provided men tofight under the command of General Andrew Jackson against the Creeks."[xi]At the same time, many state and federal authorities had designs on theCherokee lands as part of the plan for western expansion and issues ofsovereignty were a consideration as state and federal legislatures tried tocope with a tribal government that had its own laws and courts despitebeing located inside state and national boundaries. governmentrecognition of the Cherokees in 1899, their difficulties continued. This listingdemonstrates that beginning in 1629, the Cherokee came into increasedcontact with the European explorers-turned-settlers and colonists, enteringinto a number of treaties regarding land concessions and rights that wouldone-by-one be abrogated by the European settlers.[iv] Conflict was inevitable, according to Kathleen Duval, because thelifestyle of the Native American peoples like the Cherokee and that of theEuropean settlers were radically different. Council meetings nowheld bi-annually.[pic]1987 - Wilma Mankiller makes history and draws international attentionto tribe as first woman elected chief; Cherokee voters pass constitutionamendment to elect council by districts in 1991.[pic]1988 - Cherokee Nation joins Eastern Band in Cherokee, NC tocommemorate beginning of The Trail of Tears.[pic]1989 - The Cherokee Nation observes 15 th anniversary of arrival inIndian Territory. 315-316.[xvi] Robert J. Civil War begins.[pic]1861 - Treaty signed at Park Hill between Cherokee Nation and theConfederate government. Newtreaty limits tribal land rights, eliminates possibility of Cherokee Stateand is prelude to Dawes Commission. 3.[xv] Gary Nash, op. Availableat www.historytools.org.[iv] See "Important Dates in Cherokee History," 2 6, pp. Bill Keeler appointed chief by President Harry Truman.[pic]1957 - First Cherokee National Holiday.[pic]1961 - Cherokees awarded 15 million dollars by the US ClaimsCommission for Cherokee Outlet Lands.[pic]1963 - Cherokee National Historical Society founded. Though they were a proud people,no less a personage than Henry Clay recognized that the Cherokee werebanished from their native homes, their right of self-government destroyed,and their forced removal west of the Mississippi River was likely to beonly a temporary solution to the "problem" that they presented.[vii] Whereas during the British colonial period, the Cherokee and othertribal groups were considered to be foreign nations and were dealt with bytreaty, with the transformation of the colonies into the United States, thetribal people were treated as dependent sovereigns retaining only limitedcontrol of their internal affairs. 25-26.[vi] William Cronon, Changes in the Land. Gold discovered in Georgia.[pic]1828-183 - Georgia Legislature abolishes tribal government andexpands authority over Cherokee country.[pic]1832 - US Supreme Court decision Worcester vs Georgia establishestribal sovereignty, protects Cherokees from Georgia laws. Available at www.ucan-online.org.Anonymous. There are some 12, members of the Eastern Band of Cherokees in North Carolina. First Cherokee Tribal Council elected Congress passes Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act.[pic]1976 - Cherokee voters ratify new Constitution outlining tribalgovernment.[pic]1979 - Tribal offices moved into modern new complex South ofTahlequah.[pic]1984 - First joint council meeting in 146 years between Eastern Bandof Cherokees and Cherokee Nation held at Red Clay, TN. "Important Dates in Cherokee History." 2 6. "Genesis - Creation Stories." 1998. Red, White & Black. 1-2.[ix] Andrew Denson, Demanding the Cherokee Nation. Availableat www.powersource.com/nation/dates/ html.[v] Kathleen Duval, "Debating Identity, Sovereignty, and Civilization,"Journal of the Early Republic, Spring 2 6, 26(1), pp. Available at www.historytools.org. Jackson won'tenforce decision and Georgia holds lottery for Cherokee lands.[pic]1835 - Treaty Party signs Treaty of New Echota, giving up title to allCherokee lands in southeast in exchange for land in Indian Territory (nowOklahoma.).[pic]1838-1839 - Trails of Tears. Despite U.S. A series of treaties(see Appendix A) resulted in the removal of Cherokees from areas such asGeorgia to western territories such as Oklahoma in the newly acquiredLouisiana Territory. 1. 15 -16.[ii] Sarah Steele, "Genesis: Creation Stories," 1998, p. military.[viii] Many different treaties were enacted as is evident in the attachedAppendix. A swap of land took place in tandem with the IndianRemoval Act of 183 which ultimately gave Congressional approval toPresident Jackson's scheme to move the vast majority of Native Americanswest in a clear violation of tribal sovereignty.[xii] The Cherokees became a divided people with reunion between theeastern and western Cherokees not taking place until the twentieth century. US Government's forced removal of 17, Cherokees, in defiance of Supreme Court decision. 1.. Against this, the Cherokees argued that what was occurring was aweakening of Cherokee sovereignty and a call for Indian assimilation thatfurther undermined Cherokee sovereignty. Appendix A Timeline of Important Dates in Cherokee History[pic]154 - The Spanish explorer, Hernando De Soto and his party are thefirst whites seen by the Cherokees.[pic]1629 - The first traders from the English settlements began tradingamong the Cherokees.[pic]1721 - The Cherokee Treaty with the Governor of the Carolinas isthought to be the first concession of land.[pic]1785 - Treaty of Hopewell is the first treaty between the U.S. Available athttp://web.ebscohost.com[viii] Michael J. New York: Hill and Wang, 1983.Denson, Andrew. Available at www.ebscohost.com.Conley, Robert J. 3.[xiii] Anonymous. Conley suggests thatresistance to forced assimilation often took the form of violence by theCherokee against settlers but also took the form of attempting to use themechanisms of the American government in support of Cherokeesovereignty.[x]Dependence, Attempted Assimilation, Revitalization, and the Quest forRenewed Sovereignty, 1871-2 6 The Cherokee were dramatically affected by the movement west ofAmericans searching for new lands. The problem of course is what it has always been - the differencebetween assimilation and autonomy. "Our Treatment of the Cherokees." Essential Documents in American History, 2 6. Available at www.powersource.com/nation/dates.html.Bulzomi, Michael J. Conley, The Cherokee Nation: A History (Albuquerque:University of New Mexico Press, 2 5), pp. Many small groups remained in their traditionalterritories, but between 1838 and 1839 the vast majority of the Cherokeeswere banished to the Oklahoma Indian Territory. "Introduction." Voices from the Trail of Tears, 2 3, p.4. In 1828, they areforced to move into Indian territory.[pic]1821 - Sequoyah's Cherokee Syllabary completed, quickly leads toalmost total literacy among the Cherokees.[pic]1822 - Cherokee's Supreme Court established.[pic]1824 - First written law of Western Cherokees.[pic]1825 - New Echota, GA authorized as Cherokee capital.[pic]1827 - Modern Cherokee Nation begins with Cherokee Constitutionestablished by a convention; John Ross elected chief.[pic]1828 - Cherokee Phoenix published in English and Cherokee; AndrewJackson elected President. Available at http://library.thinkquest.org/18757/text /Cherokee.htm.Voelker, David J. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2 .Stewart, M. During thissame period, questions of jurisdiction and sovereignty were of significanceand like other Native American peoples, the Cherokees used their resourcesto take back control of their language, their culture, their sovereignty,and their right to self-governance.[xvi]Conclusion This report has identified some of the key events in the long,complex, and rich history of the Cherokee people. "Indian Tribal Sovereignty." FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, June 2 1, 7 (6), pp. The project, which ran for three years beginningOct.1 199 , authorized the tribe to assume tribal responsibility for BIAfunds which were formerly being spent on the tribe's behalf at the agency,area and central office levels.[pic]1991 - In the July tribal election the first council to be elected bydistricts since statehood and Wilma Mankiller won second elected term asprincipal chief with a landslide 82% of the votes cast.[pic]1995 - Joe Byrd and Garland Eagle elected principal chief and deputychief which marks the first time in nearly 2 years that full bloodbilingual leaders occupy the top positions of the Cherokee Nation.[pic]-----------------------[i] Gary Nash, Red, Black and White: The Peoples of Early North America(Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 2 ), pp. 26-58.Luebben, Dave. toadvance civilization of the Cherokees by giving them farm tools andtechnical advice.[pic]18 2 - Jefferson signs Georgia Compact.[pic]1817 - Treaty makes exchange for land in Arkansas. Cherokee Nation torn by border warfare throughoutthe Civil War.[pic]1865-1866 - Cherokee must negotiate peace with the US Government. As it became increasing clear that the tribes were beingmoved out of their traditional territories to make way for settlers intenton establishing farms and settlements, the Cherokee began to resist theirforced migration.[v]Colonialism, Resistance, and Curtailment of Native Sovereignty During the colonial era and into the early years of the life of theUnited States, the Cherokee gradually recognized that their rights werebeing curtailed, their land taken, and their sovereignty eroded.[vi] By theseventeenth century, the subsistence base of the Cherokee had been narrowedto the point where they resembled European peasants more than either theirgrandparents or their English neighbors. Voelker, "Cherokee Creation Story,." 2 6, p. Bulzomi, "Indian Tribal Sovereignty," FBI Law EnforcementBulletin, June 2 1, 7 (6), pp. The Cherokee Nation: A History. "A New Beginning".[pic]199 - Chief Mankiller signs the historic self-governance agreement,making the Cherokee Nation one of six tribes to participate in the self-determination project. Robert J. The purpose of these treaties as described by Andrew Denson wasto provide a framework within which the inherent rights of the Cherokeecould be established and in which the greater authority of the U.S.government would be recognized.[ix] A major thrust of government policy was on the removal of the Cherokeefrom their traditional lands to new settlements west of the MississippiRiver. The thesis to be advancedis that the Cherokee today are once more able to revel in their languageand culture and to reserve them for future generations.Fully Sovereignty and Conflict The Cherokee "creation story" as described by Sarah Steele assertsthat it was the efforts of the "great buzzard from Halun'lati" which, tiredfrom his flight to the Cherokee land to see if it was dried, flapped hiswings and thereby made the mountains and hills and valleys.[ii] Duringthe 17th and 18th centuries, the Cherokee were a "numerous and strongpeople who controlled an immense area of land, spanning from the westernparts of modern-day Virginia, North Carolina and South Carolina well intoGeorgia, Kentucky, and Alabama."[iii] Attached as Appendix A is a listingof important dates in the history of the Cherokee Nation. 1-9.Clay, Henry. 1 - 3. (Lincoln, NE:University of Nebraska Press, 2 4), pp. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2 4.Duval, Kathleen. "Ten Thousand Years of Cherokee History." Christian Science Monitor, July 13, 2 6, 97(16 ), pp. Assimilation, as noted by Gary Nash, was rejected infavor of a greater degree of autonomy and a return to sovereignty.[xv] During the 198 s and 199 s for example, the Cherokees of Oklahomaamounted to almost 24 , individuals with an additional 1 , fullblooded Cherokees among the United Keetoowah Band. 2 3. cit., pp. Tribal government was undertaken by the election of chiefs and a writtenconstitution for the various Cherokee peoples was established in 1827 andwent into effect in 1828.[xiii] Throughout the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries, the Cherokeewere fragmented. Available at www.ebscohost.com.Anonymous. cit., pp. BibliographyAnonymous. 2 -25.[xi] Anonymous. 2 9-215. and theCherokees.[pic]1791 - Treaty of Holston signed. "Cherokee - Ancient Cherokee Rulers." 2 6. Supreme Court ruling confirms Cherokee Nation ownership ofbed and banks of 96 mile segment of Arkansas Riverbed.[pic]1971 - W.W.Keeler becomes first elected principal chief sincestatehood.[pic]1975 - Ross O. More than 4, die fromexposure and disease along the way.[pic]1839 - Assassination of Treaty Party leaders, Major Ridge, John Ridge,and Elias Boudinot for breaking pact not to sign Treaty of New Echota.Factionalism continues until 1846. New constitution ratified at conventionuniting Cherokees arriving from the east with those in the west.[pic]1844 Cherokee Supreme Court building opens; Cherokee Advocate becomesthe first newspaper in Indian territory.[pic]1851 - Cherokee male and female seminaries open. "Cherokee-Ancient Cherokee Rulers, " 2 6, pp. Old settlers beginvoluntary migration and establish a government there. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2 5.Cronon, William. 1. "Cherokee Creation Story." 2 6. During this period, the Cherokees enjoyedindependence, lost it, struggled to regain some degree of autonomy in theface of the Anglo dominance of the land and its resources, and ultimatelyhave returned to a greater degree of sovereignty than had been availablefor most of the past 2 years of their history. The Resurgence of the Cherokee NationIntroduction Long before Europeans arrived in what would become North America,native peoples including the Cherokee nation of the southern Appalachianregion had created complex social systems and lifestyles that wouldultimately be challenged and, in many instances, virtually destroyed by theinflux of land-hungry Europeans.[i] At issue in this brief report is ananalysis of the development of the Cherokee Nation from their creationstory to the present. Demanding the Cherokee Nation: Indian Autonomy and American Culture, 183 -19 . Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England. Rogers, the last Cherokee Chief, dies.[pic]1934 - Indian Reorganization Act established a landbase for tribes andlegal structure for self government.[pic]1948 - Chief J.B.Milam calls Cherokee Convention; beginning of modeltribal government of the Cherokee Nation.[pic]1949 - W.W. Swimmer elected to first of three terms as principalchief. The brevity of thereport presents any truly in-depth analysis of this history. Available at http://web.ebscohost.com.[xii] Ibid., p. 6-7.[vii] Henry Clay, "Our Treatment of the Cherokees." Essential Documents inAmerican History, February 14, 1835, p.

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